
LIBRARY OF, CONGRESS. 

Chap...^r7. Copyright No. 

Shelf..^!.^ >^ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




■ k Land on which the Lar(;e Timber has bi in Ci I 
Small Trees Left to Grow. 



THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

A STUDY OF THE FOREST IN 

NE-HA-SA-NE PARK 



WITH TABLES OF VOLUME AND YIELD AND 
A WORKING-PLAN FOR CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING 



gifford'pinchot 






NEW YORK 
THE CRITIC CO. 

lSc,S 



23144 

Copyright, 1898, 

By GlFFORD PlNCHOT 



TWO COPIES REC IVED, 



<l0 







PREFACE 

The owners and operators of Spruce lands in the 
Eastern United States will find w T ithin the covers of 
this little book a collection of facts and figures which is 
intended first of all to be of practical use. The infor- 
mation it contains is the product of a prolonged in- 
vestigation conducted throughout with that intention. 
If its results have any merit, therefore, it must be be- 
cause they are capable of assisting American lumber- 
men to get better returns from their investments in 
Spruce lands through conservative lumbering and suc- 
cessive crops than they could by considering the pro- 
ductiveness of these lands as of merely temporary in- 
terest. In the attempt to be of use in this way, some 
departures from established methods of study and state- 
ment have been necessary. Such changes are inevi- 
table. As yet forestry in America is young. In its 
progress toward maturity it must develop new meth- 
ods to meet the unfamiliar conditions with which it has 
to deal. Rules and practices which were devised with- 
out reference to American forests cannot always be 
counted on to fit American needs. Perhaps nothing 
has done more to retard the progress of forestry in 
America than the disregard of its intimate and friendly 
relation to lumbering-— a relation which was almost 
wholly overlooked for years after the advocates of forest 



IV PREFACE 

protection first brought their cause to public attention. 
In the eyes of many of its early friends the lumber- 
man was a vandal whose inordinate greed called for 
constant denunciation, while to the lumberman the 
ideas of the forest reformer had no relation whatever 
to the affairs of practical life. Since that early day 
lumbermen and foresters have been drawing together, 
and much progress has been made toward the right 
opinion, which may be expressed by saying that lum- 
berman and forester are as needful to each other as the 
ax and its helve. Without the ax the helve has little 
weight; without the helve the ax is lacking both in reach 
and in direction. 

As the aim of the book is wholly practical, much ma- 
terial of chiefly theoretical interest has been necessarily 
excluded from its pages. A little of it, either closely 
connected with the main object of the book or other- 
wise of special interest, has been printed in small type. 
Only so much of it has been included in the body of the 
book as is necessary to show the way by which results 
were reached. Hence, "The Adirondack Spruce," 
considered as a general discussion, is extremely defec- 
tive. To mention but a single instance, no account is 
given of the age of the Spruce in relation to size, be- 
cause the plan of work here proposed does not require 
a knowledge of it. 

It is a fortunate fact that this plan of work is already 
undergoing practical trial. Dr. Webb was the first to 
adopt it, for Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, a tract of 40,000 acres, 
including the land hereafter described. A statement 



PREFACE V 

of it laid before the Hon. William C. Whitney 
and Mr. Patrick Moynehan met with their approval, 
and led to its introduction on land contiguous to the 
Park, belonging to Mr. Whitney and operated jointly 
by Mr. Whitney and Mr. Moynehan. An account of 
the detailed working-plans under which this work is 
being done, together with the results of the first year's 
cut, will be published early in the coming year by the 
Division of Forestry, United States Department of 
Agriculture, by which the plans were prepared, and 
under whose supervision they are being carried out. 
The total area now being managed in the Adirondacks 
under the plans of the Division is slightly more than 
100,000 acres. 

I wish to express in this place my high sense of the 
public spirit and practical wisdom which led Dr. Webb 
to sustain the investigation whose results are now pub- 
lished, and to approve and apply the plans of work 
which it has produced. My sincere thanks are also 
due to Mr. Edward M. Burns, Manager of Ne-Ha-Sa- 
Ne Park, for his unfailing interest and assistance, and 
to the men to whose constant and loyal efforts whatever 
has been accomplished is so largely due. 

GlFFORD PlNCHOT. 

Washington, D. C, Oct. 24, 1898. 



. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. THE SPRUCE 

CHAP. PAGE 

Introduction i 

i The Forest 4 

2 The Spruce 16 

3 Spruce in Mixture 22 

4 Associated Trees 24 

5 Lumbering 31 

6 The Basis for Forest Management 34 

7 Volume Tables 50 

8 Valuation Surveys 59 

9 Yield Tables 75 

10 Yield of Associated Species 87 



PART II. THE WORKING PLAN 

11 Topography and Climate 98 

12 Transportation 101 

13 Reasons for Forest Management 102 

14 Treatment of the Forest 105 

15 Cutting no 

16 Returns 114 

Appendix 121 



PART I 
THE SPRUCE 



A 



INTRODUCTION 

The study whose results are here presented had its 
origin in a conversation between Dr. W. Seward Webb 
and the writer in November, 1896. The arrangement 
then made contemplated a division of responsibility 
according to which Dr. Webb's contribution should 
consist of the funds necessary for the pay of assistants 
and the necessary field expenses, while my share in- 
volved the planning and supervision of the work, and 
the preparation of its results for publication. The 
whole undertaking was to have for its object the " pres- 
ervation and proper management of Spruce lands in 
the northeastern United States." 

It was evident at that time, and it is still more evident 
now, that the original forests cannot long suffice to 
supply the increasing demands for Spruce which are 
made upon them. To provide for a second, and for suc- 
ceeding crops of Spruce is the obvious and necessary 
way to prevent a scarcity of this valuable tree, and the 
consequent crippling, in the comparatively near future, 
of the industries which depend upon it. The purpose 
of the present study was to acquire such a knowledge 
of the laws which govern the growth of the Red Spruce 
that the main facts necessary for the conservative treat- 
ment of Spruce forests might be put within the reach of 
the men most likely to undertake it. 



2 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

Under this plan instructions were prepared, and 
field-work was begun early in December, 1896, and 
was continued for nearly two months. It was the in- 
tention to confine it chiefly, but not altogether, to Ne- 
Ha-Sa-Ne Park, the property of Dr. Webb. To sup- 
ply data which could not there be obtained, it consisted 
at the outset chiefly in tree-analyses on land belonging 
to the Santa Clara Lumber Company, near Santa Clara, 
Franklin County, N. Y., which was being cut over the 
second time for Spruce. Sincere thanks are due to the 
officers of this company for their constant courtesy and 
most valuable assistance. Mr. Henry S. Graves was 
charged with the execution of the work, and was assisted 
by two volunteers, Mr. U. F. Bender and Mr. Henry 
Farnham, and by two woodsmen hired for the purpose. 
The field work was interrupted for some months, when 
this part of it was completed, and was resumed about 
the middle of May at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, Hamilton County, 
N. Y. Mr. Graves was again in charge, and was 
assisted by Messrs. W. McClintock and W. S. Walcott, 
both volunteers. During the first week of July Mr. 

E. M. Griffith replaced Mr. Graves, who had been 
called away on important Government work in the 
West. Mr. Griffith was assisted by Messrs. W. McClin- 
tock, W. S. Walcott, T. H. Sherrard, F. E. Olmsted, 

F. Mosle, G. M. Leupp, and S. Woodruff, all volunteers. 
The work at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne was completed early in 
September, 1897. The work of stating the results, and 
preparing them for publication, has occupied the inter- 
vening time. Acknowledgments are due to the men 



INTRODUCTION 3 

who gave their services to the investigation, and special 
mention should be made in this place of the efficient 
and accurate work of Mr. Graves, to whom was en- 
trusted the execution of plans in the making of which 
he shared, and of Mr. Griffith as his assistant. 

The field work done comprised the counting and 
measurement, on 1046 acres, of all Spruces down to a 
diameter of two inches, and of all other trees ten inches 
or more in diameter. All Spruces below 2 inches were 
counted under the head of "tallies." On twelve of 
these acres the trees other than Spruce were also 
measured and counted down to two inches. Each of 
the twelve acres was a square, while the remainder 
(1034) were taken by the chain method described later 
on. In addition, fourteen sample plots, of rather 
more than an acre in average size, were carefully sur- 
veyed at Santa Clara, and their trees counted, and all 
the Spruces over 5 inches in diameter, to the number of 
2,006, were analyzed. At Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne the number ot 
tree-analyses reached two hundred and ninety-eight. 
These materials, together with the silvicultural and 
other notes collected by Mr. Graves and myself during 
several years, have furnished the data presented in this 
book. It is believed that they represent accurately the 
average conditions of the region with which they deal. 



THE FOREST 

The forest of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, except for a small 
strip on the southern side, has never been lumbered. 
In places along the railroad the Spruce has been culled 
for ties, and near camp sites and rangers' cabins there 
has been some cutting for fuel and other local uses. 
But for the most part the Park is covered with a virgin 
forest. 

A virgin forest is the product of centuries of struggle 
among the trees for the occupancy of the ground. This 
competition takes place between individuals of the same 
species, as well as between the different species, and 
its result determines the character of the forest. Nature 
does not provide for the survival of those trees alone 
which are of greatest use to man, or for the destruction 
of the valueless. The valueless species enter the con- 
test with as much vigor as the more technically valu- 
able, and often win in the race. A natural 'forest, then, 
contains alike valuable timber, unsound and worthless 
trees, and species which have at present no merchanta- 
ble use. From a technical point of view the condition 
of the virgin forest is not good, because much of the 
land, which might be producing marketable timber, is 
occupied by scrubby and worthless trees. 

The important species of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park are all 




Typical Virgin Forest. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 



THE FOREST 5 

tolerant of shade to a considerable degree. As a con- 
sequence, the forest is composed of trees of all ages and 
sizes, for the younger trees are able to survive beneath 
the shade of the older ones. Such a forest is said to 
have the selection form. 

A selection forest is usually composed of species 
tolerant of shade. This does not mean, however, that 
intolerant species are wanting, for these maintain their 
existence by prolific reproduction, rapid growth, and 
the ability to live on poor soil, rather than by overcom- 
ing their rivals in the struggle on the ground. Thus 
where openings are made by windfall or fire, such 
species often take possession of the land, coming up in 
fairly even-aged bodies, sometimes of very considerable 
size. On fire slashes in the Adirondacks, for example, 
the Poplar, a tree very intolerant of shade, but with very 
light seed easily carried by the wind, rapidly takes pos- 
session of the soil. White Pine comes up in openings 
after fire. Tamarack, the most intolerant of all, grows 
rapidly in height, and so maintains its place. It starts 
in openings, and, by growing faster than Spruce or 
Balsam, forms an upper story above them. In the long 
run, other things being equal, the tolerant species will 
win, and the intolerant will be forced to retire to the 
openings caused by fire, wind, insects or disease. 

The species which occur in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park are 
Spruce, Birch, Hard Maple, Soft Maple, Beech, Balsam, 
Hemlock, White Pine, Tamarack, Cherry, Black Ash, 
White Ash, two Poplars (distinguished as the Aspen 
and the Largetooth Aspen), and Bird Cherry. Of these, 



6 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

Spruce, Hemlock, Balsam, the Maples, Beech, and Birch 
are tolerant. White Pine is intermediate, and the re- 
mainder of the trees are intolerant of shade. A pro- 
visional scale of tolerance is as follows, beginning with 
the species which demand most light : Tamarack, Pop- 
lar, Bird Cherry, White and Black Ash, Bla'ck Cherry, 
White Pine, Birch, Soft Maple, Balsam, Spruce, Hem- 
lock, Beech, Hard Maple. These species occur in mix- 
ture of varying proportions, the preponderance of one 
tree or another depending primarily on the situation 
and soil. 

In general, the forest may be divided into four dis- 
tinct types, named from the situations where they grow; 
Swamp land, Spruce flat, Hardwood land, and Spruce 
slope. Further subdivision would be possible, but it 
is unnecessary for the purposes of this report. 

From an examination of the land, from the topographi- 
cal map, and from the 1046 valuation surveys, these four 
classes of situation are estimated to have approximately 
the following proportion in the Park : 

Swamp lands, 22 per cent. 

Spruce flats, 10 per cent. 

Hardwood lands, 42 per cent. 

Spruce slopes, 26 per cent. 
An excellent mental picture of the forest may be ob- 
tained irom the following table, which gives for each 
species the average number per acre of trees over ten 
inches in diameter breast high, and the percentage of 
each species in the mixture, as well as the average and 
maximum diameters. These figures represent the aver- 



THE FOREST 7 

age oi the 1046 valuation surveys taken in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 
Park. The proportionate number of acres of each of 
the four situation classes corresponds quite closely with 
the actual proportion of each kind of land in the Park. 



TABLE 1 

Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and 
average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in 
diameter breast-high. 

Average of 1046 acres 



Name 

of 
Species 


Av. No. 
of Trees 
per Acre 


Percent, 
of each 

Species 


Av. Diam. 
breast- 
high. 
Inches 


Max. 
Diam. 
breast- 

hieh. 
Inches 


Spruce 


31.40 

14.00 

10.00 

6.10 

4.60 

4.20 

2.60 

.18 

.16 

.12 

.08 


42.77 

19.06 

13.62 

8.30 

6.26 

5.72 

3-54 

.24 

.22 

.16 

.11 


13.0 
17.1 
13.2 
13.9 
16.7 
11.4 
13.6 
18.4 
12.9 
14.5 
15.3 


30 
38 
26 
30 
37 
20 
28 
39 
19 
28 
24 


Birch 


Beech 


Hard Maple 


Hemlock 


Balsam 


Soft Maple 


White Pine 


Ash 


Cedar 


Cherry 




Average of all species . . . 
Average of all species ex- 


73.44 
42.04 


100.00 
57.23 


14.5 
14.7 


29 
28.9 





THE ADIRCNDACK SPRUCE 



SWAMP LANDS 

Under this head are included all the swamp and 
marsh lands of the Park. In certain places, on low, 
flat, wet ground, there is an almost pure growth of 
small, spindling, narrow-crowned Spruce, which ap- 
parently does not reach a merchantable size. The 
general aspect of this tree, in habit and color of foliage, 
is in marked contrast to those about it. On close ex- 
amination, it is found to be Black Spruce {Picea mari- 
ana (Mill) B. S. P.), while the merchantable tree is 
Red Spruce {Picea rubra (Poir) Diet.) 

The Red Spruce also occurs almost pure in low 
swampy ground, but it is more often found in mixture 
with Balsam. In such places it is usually short and 
scrubby. The following summary gives the average 
condition of the forest on swamp land in the Park. 




Spruce Swamp. The Dead Trees are Tamarack. 
Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 



TABLE 2 
SWAMP LANDS 



Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and aver- 
age and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in 
diameter breast-high. 

Average of 225 acres 



Name 

of 
Species 


Av. No. 

of Trees 
per Acre 


Percent, 
of each 
Species 


Av. Diam. 
breast- 
high. 
Inches 


Max. 
Diam 
breast- 

hi^h. 
Inches 


Spruce 


34.00 

13.00 

2.40 

2.40 

5.10 

940 

3.co 

.36 

.64 

.60 

.03 


47-94 

18.33 

3.38 

3o8 

7.19 

13.25 

423 

51 

•90 

.85 

.04 


12.8 
15.4 
12.8 
13.2 
16.5 
11.4 
I3.I 
17. 1 
134 
14.5 
19.4 


27 
36 
25 
29 
35 
24 
30 
37 
21 
28 
33 


Birch 


Beech 


Hard M aple 


Hemlock 


Soft Maple 


White Pine 


Ash 


Cedar 


Cherry 




Average of all species 

Average of all species ex- 
cept Spruce 


70.93 
36.93 


100.00 
52.06 


14.5 
14.7 


29.5 
29.8 





10 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

SPRUCE FLATS 

These are level and rolling flats, usually near ponds 
and swamp lands. The soil as a rule is fresh and deep, 
although frequently the ground is covered with glacial 
boulders. The humus is fairly deep and the leaf-litter 
thick. The Spruce is of medium height and usually ot 
medium diameter, with an occasional veteran of very 
large proportions. 

On areas covered with rocks, and where the soil is 
moist, the danger from windfall is considerable. The 
second-growth after these windfalls is frequently Birch 
and Soft Maple. 

The trees in mixture on Spruce Flats are Birch, the 
Maples, Beech, Hemlock, Balsam, White Pine, Cherry, 
and Ash. 

Like the Spruce, the Birch is here of a quality and 
development intermediate between that of the higher 
ground and that found in swamps. 

These flats form the lower limit of the Hard Maple. 
It is common on higher ground, but on the lower and 
moister flats it gives way to Soft Maple. The Hard 
Maple is here inferior in quality to that found on high 
lands. Here, as elsewhere in the Park, the Soft Maple 
is very unsound. On the higher flats Beech of excellent 
quality is common on good soil ; on the lower land it is 
unsound and of inferior development. Some of the 
best Hemlock in the Park occurs on Spruce flats, es- 
pecially where the soil is fresh and not far above the 
level of streams and ponds. The Balsam for the most 
part is small, and other species have little importance. 




Spruce Flat. Pure Even-Aged Stand of Spruce 
About 120 Years Old. Santa Clara, N. Y. 



TABLE 3 
SPRUCE FLATS 



Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and 
average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in 
diameter breast-high. 

Average of 106 acres 



Name 
of 

Species 



Av. No. 
of Trees 
per Acre 



Spruce 

Birch... 

Beech 

Hard Maple 

Hemlock 

Balsam 

Soft Maple 

White Pine 

Ash 

Cherry 

Average of all species . . . 

Average of all species ex- 
cept Spruce 



29.00 
12.70 

5.60 

2.50 

5.60 

5.80 

3.00 

.10 

.10 

.05 



6445 



3545 



Percent, 
of each 
Species 



45.00 

19.71 
8.69 
3-88 
8.69 
9.00 
4.65 
•15 



55.00 



Av. Diam. 
breast- 
high. 

Inches 



13.5 
16.4 

134 
14.0 
16.5 
ii.3 
13.7 
21.0 
J3-o 
11.7 



14.4 
14.6 



Max. 

Diam. 

breast- 
high. 

Inches 



27 
34 
22 
26 

34 
18 
25 
45 
16 

17 



26.4 
26.3 



12 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 



HARDWOOD LANDS 

Hardwood lands comprise the elevated flats and 
slopes where the hardwoods are the characteristic 
species, among which the Spruce grows in considerable 
quantity, both scattered and in groups. The soil is 
richest on high fiats and moderate slopes, and here the 
largest Spruce and the best hardwoods grow. The 
humus is good and the fall of litter heavy. In general 
the Spruce is somewhat larger on the more level hard- 
wood lands than on the slopes, but the crown is apt to 
be longer and the clear length shorter. The propor- 
tion of Spruce in mixture is nearly the same in each. 

The characteristic trees in mixture are the Birch, 
Hard Maple, and Beech, with scattered Hemlock, Soft 
Maple, Pine, Cherry, and Balsam. The first three attain 
their best development on these lands, while the Hem- 
lock is of inferior quality to that found on the moister 
soil of lower ground. While Soft Maple is not a charac- 
teristic tree of the hardwood forest, it is found scattered 
there in considerable numbers, and the largest speci- 
mens frequently grow on high ground. The other species 
are not important. 




Typical Hardwood Forest. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 



TABLE 4 
HARDWOOD LANDS 



Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and 
average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in 
diameter breast-high. 



Average of 442 acres 



Name 

of 
Species 



Av. Xo. 
of Trees 
per Acre 



Spruce 29.00 

Birch 

Beech 16.40 

Hard Maple 10.10 

Hemlock 4.00 

Balsam 1 .70 

Soft Maple 2.30 

White Pine .05 

Ash 03 

Cherry 13 



Average of ail species. . . 

Average of all species ex- 
cept Spruce 



Percent, 
of each 
Species 



19.06 

20.84 

12.83 

5.08 

2.16 

2.92 

.06 

.04 

•17 



78.71 100.00 

49.71 63.16 



Av. Diam. 
breast- 
high. 



I3.I 
17.8 
137 
i4o 
17.4 
11.4 
14.0 
13.6 
12.4 
15.8 



Mo 

140 



Max. 
Diam. 
bre 1st- 

high. 

Inches 



42 
30 
33 



30.8 
30.7 



*3 



14 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 



SPRUCE SLOPES 

These are usually steep rocky slopes with meagre 
soil, bearing a torest chiefly of softwoods. In general 
the exposure is to the south. The Spruce is here ol 
excellent quality, tall and clear boled, the largest 
specimens on benches and in hollows, where the soil is 
deeper and the growth of the trees more rapid. The 
danger from windfall on such rocky slopes is very 
great. 

A fair amount ot young growth and seedlings occurs 
on Spruce slopes, and in openings and windfalls the 
reproduction is very fine. Spruce seed finds an excel- 
lent germinating bed on the moss-covered soil. 

Hemlock grows here in considerable quantities, and 
is often grouped at the brow of the ridge. Birch is the 
most abundant of the hardwoods in mixture, and is ot 
excellent quality. Beech and Hard Maple are found, 
but less abundantly. There is frequently a small cluster 
of Pines on the brow of southern slopes. 






^ e? 



<m i 4r«* t ~i 



*&*?. ' y^ 






~"m"*^f 






Spruce Slope. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park 



TABLE 5 

SPRUCE SLOPES 

Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and 
average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in 
diameter breast-high. 

Average of 274 acres 



Name 
of 

Species 



Spruce 

Birch 

Beech 

Hard Maple 

Hemlock 

Balsam 

Soft Maple -. 

White Pine 

Ash 

Cherry 

Average of all species. . . 

Average of all species ex- 
cept Spruce 



Av. No. 
of Trees 
per Acre 



34 .CO 
I3-73 
7.20 
4.00 
5.20 
3-20 
2.50 

•30 
.01 
.06 



70.17 
36.17 



Percent, 
of each 
Species 



48.45 

19.52 

10.26 

5.70 

7.42 

4.56 

3.56 

.42 

.02 

.09 



Av. Diam 
breast- 
high. 

Inches 



Max. 
Diam. 

breast 
high. 

Inches 



12.90 
18.60 
13.10 
14.00 
16.30 
11.40 
1370 
21.90 
12.70 
14.20 



14.8b 
15.10 



34 

40 

27 
3i 
42 
18 
25 
42 
14 



29.3 
28.8 



II 

THE SPRUCE 

HABIT 

In favorable localities and in crowded forest, the 
Spruce forms a long, clear, full bole, and a rather com- 
pact, short, and blunted crown. It attains in Ne-Ha- 
Sa-Ne Park a height of one hundred feet and a di- 
ameter of thirty-four inches. These dimensions are, 
however, rare, and the average for large trees is not 
over ninety feet in height, and, for the diameter, from 
twenty-four to twenty-six inches. On low swampy 
ground Spruce has a long crown, and is comparatively 
short. The average length of crown for all situations and 
soils in the Park is about forty feet, and the average 
clear length from twenty-five to thirty feet. The 
average length of merchantable log was found to be 
forty-six feet. The root system is flat and superficial, 
and the tree, in consequence, is able to thrive on 
shallow soils. 

SOIL AND SITUATION 

The influence of situation and soil on the character 
and distribution of the Spruce is very marked. In 
general, the Spruce may be divided into three classes 
with fairly distinct lines, according as it is found on 

16 



THE SPRUCE 17 

hardwood lands or Spruce slopes, on swamp lands, or 
on the intermediate Spruce flats. Occasional groups 
of Spruce on the narrow tops of high ridges belong 
also to the latter class. While the character of the 
tree varies according to the situation, yet the Spruce is 
not fastidious, for it occupies all situations and soils; 
the tops of mountains and ridges, abrupt rocky slopes, 
and low wet swamps, as well as good soil. The best 
Spruce is found on rich flats or moderate slopes with 
rich fresh soil. Any aspect is good if the soil is suita- 
ble. It must not be wet or acid. Thus the largest 
Spruce is found on low moderate slopes, in sheltered 
coves, along the benches or hollows of steep slopes, 
and on rich flats. On low swampy land it is short and 
of slow growth. Spruce of intermediate growth occurs 
on Spruce flats, where the soil is fresh or even moist, 
but not wet. 

Aside from these general considerations, the pres- 
ence or absence of the Spruce in certain places is de- 
termined chiefly by accidental distribution and by the 
struggle with other species for possession of the ground. 
On steep southwestern slopes it is found in great 
abundance, and sometimes almost pure. This is not 
because the soil and aspect are here most favorable to 
the growth of Spruce, but because many of the hard- 
woods will not grow on such rocky, thin soil, and the 
Spruce is thus left almost without competitors. In the 
same way Spruce often predominates on poor, low, 
moist, or even wet, lands, because in such places also 
it is almost without competition. Spruce is then most 



1 8 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

abundant not necessarily where situation and soil are 
best suited to its development, but in many cases where 
the soil is so poor that no other tree will grow. It is 
most abundant on the brows of ridges, on knolls, steep 
slopes, along the edges of lakes, and often on low 
moist ground. On high land it must contend with the 
numerous and persistent hardwoods, which, in capacity 
to bear shade, in height-growth, and in reproductive 
capacity, are fully equal to it. 

REPRODUCTION 

There are two qualities which enable the Spruce to 
maintain itself in fairly uniform proportion in the 
Adirondack forest. These are its ability to live under 
the heavy crowns of other trees, already referred to, 
and its remarkable power of reproduction. The latter 
depends first of all on the great quantities of seed which 
are produced year by year. The seeds of the Spruce 
are winged, and as they ripen and fall from the cones 
the winds catch and spread them widely throughout 
the forest. In this way the chance to take possession 
of suitable localities can be used whenever it arises. 
For the best reproduction of Spruce a good seed bed 
and a certain amount of light are required. Large 
quantities of seed fall annually which never germinate, 
and thousands of small seedlings perish through the 
lack of proper conditions of light and soil. Where 
there is light enough, Spruce seedlings germinate and 
grow easily on deep Spruce or Pine duff and on heavy 
beds of moss. Thus on Spruce slope seedlings are 




Reproduction of Spruce in a Windfall. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 



THE SPRUCE 19 

abundant on the moss-covered rocks and logs, and in- 
deed wherever a break in the forest canopy admits suf- 
ficient light. A heavy matting of leaf litter, on the 
other hand, such as is found on hardwood land, seems 
less thoroughly adapted to their requirements, but they 
are found scattered in greater or less numbers almost 
throughout the forest. In small openings, especially 
those made by windfalls, they are most frequent, and 
here they occur in dense groups, growing rapidly under 
the influence of the light. In other still smaller open- 
ings in the forest such groups of greater or less extent 
are very common, and form one of the distinguishing 
features of the reproduction of this tree. In larger 
openings, caused by fire, the return of the Spruce to 
land from which it has been burned away is often slow. 
Commonly it is preceded by a growth of herbaceous 
plants, and vines, followed by Poplar and Bird Cherry, 
and then, when a suitable seed-bed has been prepared 
by the waste from these trees, the return of the Spruce 
itself takes place. 

TOLERANCE 

The fact that young seedlings and small trees are so 
widely distributed through the forest is due in part to 
the ability of this tree to grow under heavy shade. 
This does not mean that the Spruce will not flourish in 
the light, but merely that it is tolerant ot the heavy 
cover which is a distinguishing characteristic of the hard- 
wood forest in the Adirondacks and throughout New 
England. Specimens from 100 to 150 years old, and 



20 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

less than six inches in diameter, are common. Such 
trees have survived on the little sunlight which could 
penetrate the heavy crowns above them, and, although 
not in vigorous health, are capable of continuing the 
struggle to an advanced age. This ability to tolerate 
heavy shade is common to large numbers of forest 
trees, among which both the Beech and the Hard Maple 
excel the Spruce in this regard. But few trees possess 
the wonderful capacity of the Spruce to recover from 
long years of suppression and grow almost or quite as 
vigorously and rapidly after it is ended as though all 
the conditions of life had been favorable from the be- 
ginning. It is to this capacity more than to any other 
that the Spruce owes its presence in the Adirondack 
forests. Slow of growth in youth, and germinating for 
the most part under heavy shade, the Spruce could not 
survive in the hardwood forest, where it reaches its best 
development, except by the combination of these two 
qualities, the ability to bear shade, and the power to 
flourish when the suppression is over as vigorously as 
though it had never been. 

This power of tolerance is not restricted to early life, 
although very marked at that time, but continues into 
age as well. Thus, at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne several trees but 
nine inches in diameter were found to have more than 
200 annual rings on the stump, and of eighteen Spruces 
with diameters ranging from 8.5 to 9.4 inches, but seven 
were younger than 1 50 years, and none were younger 
than 100. One Spruce stump 4.5 inches in diameter 
had 121 annual rings. These trees had grown for years 




Small Spruce Which Was for Many Years Suppressed. 

THE LEADER WAS BROKEN OFF ; A SIDE BRANCH TOOK ITS 
PLACE, BECAME THE MAIN SHOOT, AND NOW, WITH A FAIR 
DEGREE OF LIGHT, IS GROWING VIGOROUSLY. NE-HA-SA-NE 
PARK. 



THE SPRUCE 21 

crowded and shaded by their more thrifty neighbors. 
Under such circumstances it is common to find small 
trees still alive, but with flattened and umbrella-shaped 
crowns. Even such trees are not beyond the possibility 
of usefulness. If the shade be removed they will 
usually begin to grow as vigorously as though they had 
never been suppressed. If the leading shoot has been 
killed, which is sometimes the case, a side branch will 
turn upward and take its place, and the growth, 
although somewhat retarded by the accident, will go 
rapidly on. A considerable proportion of all the large 
Red Spruce in the Adirondacks is found, on examina- 
tion, to have passed through this umbrella stage. On 
old windfalls in certain sections, for example, and par- 
ticularly on low flats, many of the old Spruces carry 
clusters of very numerous persistent branches growing 
close together at ten or fifteen feet above the ground. 
Such branches mark a period when the crown was 
flattened and umbrella-shaped. The present size of 
these Spruces shows plainly how when the old trees 
above them were blown down they shot up and grew 
thriftily in spite of the severe circumstances of their 
youth. It is true that when trees have attained such a 
size before being set free the injury to the lumber is 
serious, for the persistent branches entail the loss of a 
certain amount of clear stuff. If, however, the tree 
is small when freed, the knots from which these branches 
grew may be covered over in time, and lumber of good 
quality may be produced. 



Ill 

SPRUCE IN MIXTURE 

The forest on the Park has been described as a 
mixed selection forest composed of species which for 
the most part are extremely tolerant of shade. The 
distribution of different species in different places is de- 
termined primarily by the situation and soil. In local- 
ities suited to the growth of a number of species the 
factors which govern the preponderance of one tree 
over another are: First. — Accidental distribution, under 
which head are grouped such facts as may result from 
the wind blowing in a particular direction just as ripe 
seeds are ready to fall, from a windfall taking place 
just before an abundant seed-year, or from similar acci- 
dental happenings by which one species is given special 
opportunities or advantages for reproduction. Second. — 
The peculiar power of each species to contend with its 
neighbors for space and light. As different trees start 
together or in succession on any given tract, the strug- 
gle for existence begins and will be determined by 
the power of the different species for carrying it on. It 
is the outcome of this struggle which fixes the char- 
acter of the forest, and in it without accidental aid the 
tolerant species must win in the long run. If the intol- 
erant species can get the start, being often rapid of 
growth, they may hold their position by growing above 



SPRUCE IN MIXTURE 23 

the other trees about them, as do Tamarack and Pine. 
Under average conditions on large areas, the propor- 
tionate numbers of different trees, equal in tolerance 
and other qualities, would be fairly evenly maintained. 
All species, however, are not equal in their tolerance 
of shade, their resistance to storm and disease, in ten- 
acity of life and power of reproduction, so that an even 
mixture is seldom either achieved or maintained. 

We have already seen that Spruce grows in all situa- 
tions and soils. While in most portions of the Park it is 
mixed with other species, there are certain situations 
where Spruce occurs nearly pure. Thus, on south- 
western slopes the soil is frequently so stony and the 
slope so abrupt that such trees as Hard Maple and 
Beech find difficulty in obtaining a footing. In such 
places Spruce reproduces itself abundantly; Birch and 
Hemlock come up to some extent; but, in comparison 
with the forest on northern slopes and high flats, Spruce 
has almost undisputed sway. The same is true on 
certain ridges and knolls where the growth is almost 
entirely softwood, and on certain lowlands where its 
competitors are reduced to a few species with which 
the Spruce is abundantly able to cope. In such situa- 
tions, and wherever Spruce predominates, its future is 
assured. That is to say, under conservative treatment 
there is or there will be young growth enough to take 
the place of whatever merchantable timber maybe cut, 
and hence the reproduction is sufficient to maintain the 
present proportion of Spruce. With proper care the 
latter could, on the whole, be increased. 



IV 
ASSOCIATED TREES 

BIRCH 

Yellow Birch (Betula lutea, Michx. /.) is the char- 
acteristic hardwood tree of the Park. With an average 
diameter of fifteen inches when mature, in some cases 
it reaches a diameter of four feet and a height of 90 
to 100 feet. When growing at its best in dense forest 
it forms a long, clear, full trunk and a narrow crown. 
It inhabits a great variety of soils and situations, but 
attains its best development on hardwood flats. Al- 
though it occurs on low marshy ground, Birch avoids 
wet swamps, where it is short, scrubby, and unsound. 
It has a shallow root system, well adapted to meagre, 
stony soil, and it frequently appears on bare rocks, 
spreading its roots over the edge into the soil below. 
Seedlings often come up on logs and stumps, so that 
when the latter rot away the tree is supported only by 
its prop-like roots. In general the Birch is more abun- 
dant on southerly than on northerly slopes. 

Yellow Birch is decidedly tolerant of shade, but not 
to the same degree as Hard Maple, Beech, and Spruce. 
Under dense hardwoods its seedlings are less abundant 
than those of Beech or Maple. In open woods and in 
blanks in dense forest it springs up abundantly, with 




Yellow Birch. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 




Beech i.\ Mixture with Spruce. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 



ASSOCIATED TREES 25 

a marked tendency to associate in groups. Birch re- 
produces itself prolirically. The seed germinates better 
on moss-covered soil than where there is a thick layer 
of leaf litter. It is frequently abundant in windfalls. 
Thus, on Spruce flats, after windfalls, Birch with Soft 
Maple often forms the second-growth. It is common on 
Spruce slopes. 

The average rate ot growth was found to be, for the 
78 trees measured, one inch in diameter in twenty 
years. Young trees are plentiful, and, as in the case of 
Spruce, there is a regular gradation in number of trees 
from the small to the large diameters. 

BEECH 

The Beech (Fagus americana. Ait.) reaches a diam- 
eter of nearly three feet, and in dense stands produces 
a long, clear, smooth trunk and a narrow compact 
crown. In its choice of soil and situation it is moder- 
ately fastidious. It reaches its best development on 
moderate northeastern slopes, where it often occurs in 
nearly pure patches. On high land it is abundant, and 
it is found also on Spruce flats, and even in some marshy 
situations. It is extremely unsound on low ground, 
and indeed throughout the forest the proportion of 
unsound Beech is large. 

It reproduces itself abundantly. Young trees spring 
up in dense thickets where the hardwood forest is 
thinned, and are capable of living under heavy shade. 

Compared to other hardwoods the growth in diameter 
is fairly rapid. The average current rate of growth for 



26 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

sixteen trees, with an average diameter of 13 inches, 
was one inch in thirteen years. 

HARD MAPLE 

Hard Maple (Acer barbatum, Michx.) reaches a 
height of 90 to 100 and a diameter of nearly 3 feet. 
Of Hard Maples over 10 inches in diameter there are 
in the Park about six sound trees per acre, with an 
average diameter of 14 inches. In favorable situations 
these trees form long clear trunks and narrow compact 
crowns. They grow on high ground in fresh and 
rather deep soil, but not in swamps, and are most 
abundant on northerly slopes and high flats. 

Hard Maple reproduces itsell prolifically, and is tol- 
erant of heavy shade both in youth and in later life. 
When the hardwood forest is thinned dense thickets of 
Hard Maple come up, often to the exclusion of all other 
species. 

The growth in diameter under the present conditions 
is slow. Measurements were taken of sixteen trees 
which averaged 15 inches in diameter, and the average 
current rate of growth was found to be one inch in di- 
ameter in sixteen years. 

HEMLOCK 

The Hemlock [Tsuga canadensis, (Linn.) Carr.) is 
found in all parts of the Park, but reaches its best de- 
velopment on the borders of streams and on the low 
flats above the swamps. In such situations it is usually 




Hemlock in Mixture with Spruce. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 



ASSOCIATED TREES 27 

more sound than when growing on high slopes and 
ridges, although in general its timber is of inferior qual- 
ity and suffers severely from windshake. On the 1046 
acres measured there were four Hemlock trees over 10 
inches in diameter per acre, with an average diameter 
of 17.5 inches. 

Hemlock is very tolerant of shade both in youth and 
in later life, but in the Adirondacks it is inferior in this 
respect, as it is in reproductive capacity and quality of 
timber, to that found in Pennsylvania. The reproduc- 
tion is poor, and the tree grows very slowly both in 
diameter and height. The current rate of growth in 
diameter of 141 trees averaging 16.6 inches in diameter 
was found to average one inch in twenty-five years. 

BALSAM 

Balsam {Abies balsamea {Linn.), Mill.) is for the 
most part a small tree in the Park. One specimen 
measured 2 feet in diameter, but the average of trees 
over ten inches in diameter is between n and 12 
inches. A very large proportion of the whole stand is 
under 10 inches. Balsam is most plentiful in swamps, 
although the largest specimens are found on the knolls 
above them. On wet soil it is frequently almost pure, 
but in such cases the trees are small. 

It reproduces itself well, and the young growth bears 
a considerable amount of shade. The rate of growth 
was determined, for 63 trees averaging 10.5 inches in 
diameter, to be one inch in diameter in thirteen years. 



)} 



28 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

SOFT MAPLE 

The Soft Maple {Acer rubrum, Linn.) reaches a di- 
ameter of nearly two feet, and, when growing at its 
best, has a fair clear length. A very large proportion 
of the trees are unsound. In the Adirondacks Soft 
Maple is most abundant in low moist situations, but 
avoids acid soil. It is found, however, on high ground, 
and the largest specimens observed were on hardwood 
land. 

It reproduces itself well, as a rule, and in some places, 
notably on Spruce flats, young growth is very abundant 
after windfalls. 

The rate of growth in diameter of twenty-one trees, 
averaging 1 1 inches in diameter, was one inch in 
seventeen years. 

PINE 

White Pine (Pinus strobus, Linn.) is found in small 
groups scattered over the Park, but is nowhere abund- 
ant. It is most frequent on slight elevations in swamps, 
and is common on Spruce flats and southerly slopes. 
Nearly all the trees bend away from the prevailing 
wind. They form long clear trunks, and reach a 
height of about 120 feet, with a maximum diameter of 
sixty inches. On Spruce slopes the average diameter 
was found to be 2 1 .9 inches, on swamp land 1 7. 1 inches, 
and on Spruce flats 21.9 inches. The White Pine now 
standing in the Park is very old, and, as a rule, un- 
sound at the butt. There are a few patches of second- 




Pine in Mixture with Spruce. Ne-Ha-Sa-Xe Park. 



ASSOCIATED TREES 29 

growth near lakes and on ridges, where forest fires ap- 
parently have burned, but the small amount of young 
growth in the Park is chiefly confined to scattered in- 
dividuals coming up in windfalls and on the edge ot 
streams and lakes. Compared to the other trees with 
which it grows, White Pine is not tolerant of shade, 
and this is probably one of the important reasons why 
its reproduction is so poor. 



ASH 



Black Ash {Fraxinus nigra, Marsh.) occurs scat- 
tered in low moist situations, but nowhere forms an 
important element in the forest. It is apt to be rather 
crooked, and is often unsound. It has an average 
diameter of 12.9 inches. White Ash is very rare in the 
Park. 

CEDAR 

There is a small amount of Cedar {Thuya occidentalism 
Linn.) in the Park, for the most part confined to 
swamps, although it occurs also to some extent on 
Spruce flats and on moist soil at the foot of Spruce 
slopes. Trees over ten inches in diameter were found 
to have an average diameter of 14.5 inches, and a 
height of 50 to 60 feet. Where the forest is open the 
Cedar has a long crown and short body. In crowded 
woods the crown is much shorter, and the timber is 
valuable for telegraph poles. 



) 



30 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

CHERRY 

Black Cherry (Prunu s serotina, Ehrh.) is not com- 
mon in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, since measurements give 
an average of but one tree to twelve acres. It is most 
frequent along the line of the old military road be- 
tween Lake Partlow and Gull Lake, where its presence 
is due to the light admitted by the cutting of the road. 

Black Cherry stands about midway in the scale of 
tolerance among the trees in the Park, and reaches its 
best development in fresh, deep soil. Its reproductive 
power is rather poor, but the rate of growth is fairly 
rapid. The average diameter of all trees measured 
was 15.6 inches, and the average rate of increase one 
inch in thirteen years. 

Black Cherry reaches a good height, and forms a 
long clear trunk and a well-developed crown. Its 
timber is more valuable than that of any other tree in 
the Park. 



LUMBERING 

Lumbering, as at present practiced in the Adirondacks, 
affects the forest to its injury, because, in the first place, 
it decreases the number of valuable trees. The Spruce, 
which at best is only scattered here and there through 
the hardwoods, is removed, and no provision of any 
kind is made for its reproduction. The less valuable 
trees remain to perpetuate their kind, and the final 
effect on the forest is to leave it less valuable in com- 
position and promise than when the lumbering was 
begun. The trees which, for the most part, are 
spared by lumbermen at present are the hardwoods, 
the less valuable conifers — chiefly Hemlock and Bal- 
sam — and the defective Spruce that cannot be used 
for pulp. Underneath these trees the young Spruces 
may live for many years, but in the end they find 
it exceedingly hard, or in many cases impossible, to 
penetrate the dense cover of foliage above them and 
reach the light. Until they do they must remain 
stunted and of little value. It often happens, by the 
removal of the sound Spruce, that not enough mature 
trees remain in any locality to provide seed for the 
future forest, and in this way the reproduction of 
Spruce is hampered or made impossible. Cutting for 
pulp does far more harm than cutting for lumber, be- 
cause it takes a vastly greater number of trees. To re- 

31 



7 



32 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

duce the diameter of the smallest tree cut from 10 to 
6 inches is to double the number of individuals taken. 
In addition, the growth which would have taken place 
in the young thrifty Spruces in the next years is lost, 
and the ground produces hardwoods instead. 

In felling under the present system the loss is very 
serious in broken-top trees (not to be confounded with 
trees which have merely lost their leading shoots), which 
have been found to gain very slowly in diameter and 
height as compared with sound specimens, in young 
trees smashed and destroyed, and in young trees whose 
soundness is injured by the loss of bark. Not only are 
small trees broken and smothered by the tops of felled 
trees, but in heavy cutting the tops are often a serious 
hindrance to the germination of new seedlings. 
Further, where the soil is exposed to the sun and wind 
the moss and humus dry up and disappear, the small 
seedlings whose roots have not yet become established 
in the mineral soil are killed, and the germination of 
new seed is seriously delayed. At present this injury 
to the capital value of the forest receives no attention.* 
Practical work in the woods has demonstrated that the 
cost of the care required to prevent this loss is so small 
as to be altogether insignificant, and wholly out of 
proportion to the value of the result. 

Many young trees, where skidding is going on, lose 
pieces of their bark by contact with the harness or the 
logs, and afterward become unsound. Young trees of 
merchantable species are commonly cut to build skid- 
ways when it would be almost as easy to take less 




Effect of Lumbering for Pulp. Santa Clara, N. V. 



I 



L 



LUMBERING 33 

valuable kinds. In road-building the destruction of 
useful young growth is particularly noticeable. Young 
Spruce is often cut where other species are at hand and 
would answer the purpose just as well. 

In general, the amount of damage done under the 
present system of lumbering is in direct proportion to 
the number of trees cut per acre. Almost the whole 
of this damage is unnecessary, and could be easily pre- 
vented at very small expense. 

The influence on water-supply of cutting for logs and 
pulp-wood — not for charcoal — as at present practiced 
in the Adirondacks is small, except as lumbering in- 
creases the spread of fires. So few trees are taken per 
acre in the Pine and Spruce forests that, as a rule, the 
forest cover is but little interrupted, and is capable of 
re-establishing itself within a few years. When, how- 
ever, the forest is completely removed, as in places where 
Spruce occurs nearly pure or where the timber is cut 
for charcoal, the consequent drying up of the forest 
floor and washing of the soil has a decided and harm- 
ful influence on the flow of streams. The same result 
is brought about by the forest fires which have ravaged 
portions of the Adirondacks, and for the majority of 
which lumbering hitherto has been directly or indi- 
rectly responsible. 



)) 



VI 

THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 

It would be unfair to condemn all lumbering because 
the present method is not wholly right. The qualities 
of the Spruce, and the general circumstances which 
surround its utilization in the Adirondacks, make it 
plain that better methods are possible from every point 
of view. It is the purpose of practical forestry so to 
modify the present systems of cutting that the harm 
now done may be avoided and the removal of the old 
crop be of permanent benefit to the forest which re- 
mains. At the same time the question of revenue is 
kept prominently in view. 

Better methods of lumbering affect the forest chiefly 
through the kind and amount of the reproduction and 
growth which follow cutting, and through the condi- 
tions under which the trees develop to marketable size. 
They affect the owner through the sustained and 
increased value of his property and its yield. 

YOUNG GROWTH IN THE FOREST 

Attention has been called, in the chapters on Repro- 
duction and Tolerance, to the large amount of small 
Spruce found throughout the forest. Not only in those 
portions where Spruce is the prevailing species, but 
also on hardwood lands, groups and single specimens 

34 



THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 35 

of young Spruce are very abundant. There are, it 
is shown later, on an average 75 Spruce trees per 
acre from 2 to 6 inches in diameter, and 143 trees 
under 2 inches which are large enough to be readily 
seen. Hitherto the young growth has been disregarded 
entirely or looked upon merely as a hindrance to lum- 
bering operations. These young trees, with such seed- 
lings as may spring up later, are the material which is 
to form the next generation of merchantable Spruce. 

Much of the young growth, especially among the 
single specimens, has come up in deep shade and has 
been so suppressed that the crowns spread out like 
mushrooms, the leading shoot growing very slowly. 
But such suppressed Spruce trees possess the ability to 
recover when the shade is removed. If the plant is still 
small, the knots formed by the spreading branches will 
eventually be covered over, and timber of good quality 
will be produced. But if the tree has already reached 
some size, the branches may be so numerous and so 
well developed that it will never be of much value for 
lumber. The best advance growth is that which grows 
in groups, and the denser the group the more promis- 
ing are the young trees. 

There is enough small growth already in the forest 
to maintain the present proportion of Spruce, under 
right treatment, for at least one more generation, but 
the problem of increasing its proportion is a difficult 
one, especially where Spruce is the only species which 
can be marketed. In such a case the forester is ex 
pected to perform a difficult feat, namely, to remove 



36 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

the old timber of one species from a mixed forest and 
yet increase the proportion of the same species in the 
next crop. If it were possible to cut the other species 
gradually, the unsound as well as the lumber trees, the 
reproduction of Spruce would be simple. Under the 
present conditions, however, only merchantable trees 
can be cut, and in some cases probably the Spruce 
alone, and the desired result must be accomplished by 
the judicious selection of the trees to fall, leaving cer- 
tain specimens to distribute seed. On swamp land, on 
most Spruce flats, and on Spruce slopes, where the 
Spruce forms nearly 50 per cent, of the merchantable 
crop, this result is entirely within reach from both the 
silvicultural and the economic points of view. It will 
also be possible on a considerable portion of the hard- 
wood lands. But in certain situations, especially mod- 
erate northerly slopes, where Beech, Hard Maple, and 
Birch far outnumber the Spruce, the openings made in 
the forest will probably be seeded up to hardwood 
species. This is abundantly evidenced at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 
Station and south of the Lodge, as well as along the old 
military road between Partlow and Gull Lakes. Under 
such conditions the young Spruce cannot compete with 
hardwoods of the same age. The latter come up in 
dense thickets, and grow in early youth more rapidly 
than the Spruce. In time, when the hardwoods are old 
and the forest cover high, doubtless the Spruce will 
gradually return, but in the first generation the hard- 
woods will have the best ot it. But where the hard 
woods also can be marketed not only will the repro- 








,;. F» ■ pi 


■i 






I 

ST ' 


i >. fit H|K 

4 ■*?■« 


^4^' *i> ^*W 


■ J 




» |l i ■ ^P pip "| 


* , /; 






8Hili li 



Heavy Stand of Nearly Pure Spruce. Near North 
Woodstock, N. II . 



V, 



L 



THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 37 

duction of the Spruce be simplified, but on lands where 
the hardwoods have possession the cuttings can be so 
directed that the inferior species will greatly decrease 
in the new crop. 

THE EFFECT OF THINNING 

The advantage of conservative lumbering is, how- 
ever, not confined to the protection of young trees and 
the encouragement of new growth. The trees which 
remain after lumbering may be made to grow more 
rapidly than before. 

When a piece of ground is fully covered with forest 
trees, the latter stand so close together that they 
crowd each other, and a struggle follows in which some 
trees are suppressed and checked in their development 
and others are so shaded that they die, and the rate of 
growth in diameter of every individual in the forest 
falls behind that of trees in like situations in the open. 

But while the rapidity of growth of the individual 
tree is less, the total product is greater than it would 
be if the ground were covered with scattered trees 
only, and it is far better in quality, for in the deep 
shade of crowded woods the lower branches of the 
trees die and fall off, and long trunks clear of knots are 
produced. 

It has been found that when a crowded stand is 
thinned the trees which remain grow more rapidly 
than before. This accelerated growth is caused : First, 
by the more rapid disintegration of the humus and the 
consequent liberation of an increased amount of availa- 



Pf 



> 



38 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

ble food material; and. Second, by the increased 
spread and efficiency of the roots and crowns. 

In the Adirondacks, where the forest is dense and the 
climate cool, a deep layer of humus accumulates. 
When the forest is thinned the humus disintegrates 
more rapidly on account of the admission of the sun's 
rays and the freer circulation of air, and an increased 
amount of food material is made available for the 
growth of the trees. The immediate increase in 
growth is probably due to this cause. How long it will 
last depends upon the length of time before the humus 
disappears. Professor Hartig, of Munich, estimates 
this period, under favorable conditions, at about ten 
years. 

The effec of openings in the forest on vigorous and 
suppressed trees alike is to give them more room for 
development, a larger and better apparatus of roots 
and leaves for gathering and digesting food, and so to 
increase their rate of growth in diameter and height. 

The practice of thinning is based on this capacity 
for increased growth on the part of trees which have 
been more or less vigorously set free, or, in other 
words, on the part of the members of a piece of forest 
which has been thinned. The removal of a certain 
number of trees from overcrowded woods increases the 
final product, instead of decreasing it, and an additional 
product is obtained from the wood cut in the thinning. 
In this way the total output of a piece of forest in final 
cuttings and thinnings together is greater than it would 
be without silvicultural attention. 



THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 39 
INCREASED GROWTH AFTER LUMBERING 

In the Adirondacks the forest to be dealt with does 
not consist of one species, but is a mixture of deciduous 
and coniferous trees of all ages. The cutting there has 
been governed by the distribution of merchantable tim- 
ber, and such considerations as have just been described 
have been left entirely out of account. In this way 
it happens that a considerable amount of old Spruce 
may be removed with very little benefit to the young 
trees of that species. Old Birch and Maple and other 
hardwoods may remain, and the effect of the cutting 
may not be to free any considerable number of 
young Spruce trees from the heavy cover overhead. 
In other cases the merchantable Spruce may stand in 
groups of old trees without young growth, so that 
their removal will have little or no effect on the 
young trees which remain. The best results are attained 
only when the timber removed was well distributed 
above the young trees. Where but a single merchant- 
able species is cut from the mixed forest this can 
not often be the case. Just what the effect of the 
cutting will be on the remaining trees depends then on 
the character of all the species in mixture as well as 
on the number and distribution of the old trees which 
were removed. It is therefore difficult to reach figures 
more than approximately exact. 

The following method of study was employed as a means of at- 
tacking this question : On areas of definite size, usually of one 
acre each, on cut-over land, all trees which would make pulp-wood 
were cut and analyzed so that their exact contents were known. 



40 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

The stumps and tops of trees taken at the first cut, and the dis- 
tance between them, were then measured, and the number of logs 
and the amount of timber removed at that time were thus closely 
ascertained. All trees left by the second cut were then carefully 
measured with callipers. The date of the first cut was known, and 
it served, together with the measurements and counting of rings 
carried out in the second cut, to re-establish the history of the stand 
for about thirty years back. Fourteen such small plots were laid 
off, and over two thousand trees were carefully analyzed. The 
valuation surveys which were carried out upon them will be found 
in detail in the Appendix. 

The object in taking these stem-analyses was to determine the 
present rate of growth in diameter of trees of all sizes and to ob- 
tain measurements of enough trees to make volume tables (or 
tables of solid contents). The stem-analyses were, therefore, not as 
complete as would have been the case had the intention been to 
make tables of growth according to the German methods. 

The following measurements were taken of each tree : 

Diameter at 4.5 feet from the ground. 

Diameter on the stump inside and outside the bark. 

Diameter at the top of each log inside and outside the bark. 

Height of stump. 

Length of each log and of the top. 

The rings were counted on the stump and at the upper end of each 
log for thirty years in from the bark, and the distance to each ten- 
year point was measured. From these measurements it was easy 
to determine which trees had increased in rapidity of growth after 
the lumbering, and which had not. 

Other measurements were taken, but, as they did not contribute 
directly to the results here presented, no further mention of them 
is required. 

The great labor involved in collecting such data made it impos- 
sible to extend the present inquiry beyond the 2006 trees analyzed. 
This number, however, is great enough to establish a trustworthy 
basis, and the figures derived from it are used as such in the pres- 
ent study. The reasonableness of these figures, their number, and 



?HE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 4 1 

the fact that the effect of the probable removal of hardwoods from 
Spruce lands during the next few years has been neglected, com- 
bined to give assurance that any error resulting from their use will 
be in favor of the forest owner, not against him. 

The following table gives the per cent, of small 
trees whose growth was found to have been increased 
by the cutting of the old trees. It will be noticed that 
the causes of irregularity mentioned above have acted 
so powerfully as to prevent the statement of any exact 
ratio between the per cent, of trees affected and the 
amount of timber removed. In general the former may 
be taken at about twenty per cent. 



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THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 43 

The area chosen for the study just described was at 
Santa Clara, Franklin County, New York. Here the 
first lumbering operations took place in 1882, the next 
in 1888 and 1 891, and the final crop was removed in 1896. 
In 1882 probably only the largest and best trees were 
taken, and in consequence the number cut was small. 
At least it was not possible to find any small trees 
showing an increased growth from that date. The 
cuttings of 1888 and 1891 were much closer, and the 
effect on the small trees was very marked. 

In most cases the increased growth began with the 
first season after the cutting. On the areas cut over in 
1888 there were but a few trees which showed an ac- 
celerated growth beginning after that year. In these 
cases it was not possible to determine whether the new 
start had been delayed, or whether it was due to wind- 
falls following the cutting. On the area cut over in 
1 891 a considerable number of trees showed a small 
increase in growth the first year, and a much more 
rapid increase the following years. In general it may be 
said that the increased growth takes place, as a rule, the 
first year, and that it will in all probability continue until 
the next cutting, for if the first cause (the rapid decompo- 
sition of the humus) ceases after a few years, the roots 
and crowns will have begun to spread, and the second 
cause will thus have come into operation. 

The average rate of growth of 1 593 trees in diam- 
eter on the stump is found in the following table. It 
was determined for all the trees together for the periods 
just before and after the previous cutting, and sep- 



44 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

arately for those whose growth was accelerated. These 
trees occurred on eleven of the sample plots which were 
studied at Santa Clara. The other three plots were 
omitted because only a very few trees were taken at 
the first cut, and almost none of the remaining small 
trees showed accelerated growth. These measure- 
ments exhibit the rate of growth under various condi- 
tions of situation and soil. 

The figures of diameter growth given in the following table were 
derived from measurements of the last ten rings. For example, 
the third column gives the average rate of growth of all trees just 
before the last cutting, and was found in each case by subtracting 
the increment for the period since lumbering from the increment 
for the last ten years, and dividing by the nnmber of years during 
which the growth thus ascertained was made. The fifth column 
gives the average rate of growth of all trees since the lumbering, 
whether they show an increased growth or not. The column 
which gives the current annual growth in diameter after the values 
have been made regular by a curve also requires a word of explana- 
tion. When a series of averages are made out it often happens 
that the successive figures do not follow quite regularly. It will 
be noticed in the table that this is true of the lower part of the 
fourth column, and that it is probably explained by the lack of 
enough trees of 15 inches in diameter to get a fair average. In 
such cases the values are plotted on cross-section paper and a 
regular curve is drawn through or near the points which represent 
them. The points through which the curve actually passes are 
then taken as the true values. In this way accidental irregularities 
are avoided, and the results are brought much nearer the truth. 



TABLE 7 

Average rate of growth in diameter on the stump of 1593 trees on 
cut-over land at Santa Clara, New York. 











Current 
















annual 












Current 


Current 


growth 












annual 

growth 

in 


annual 
growth 


in 
diame- 
ter since 


No. of 

years 

required 


No. of 
trees 


Current 
annual 


Diam. 


No. of 


diame- 


in 

diame- 
ter since 

first 
cutting 


first 


to grow 


showing 


growth in 




trees 


ter just 
before 


cutting. 
Values 


one inch 
in diam- 


increas- 
ed 


diameter 
since first 






first 


made 


eter 


growth 


cutting 






cutting 


regular 
















by a 
















curve. 








Inches 




Inches 


Inches 


Inches 






Inches 


5 


3 


.095 


.095 


.09 


11 


1 


.100 


6 


.58 


.080 


.100 


.10 


10 


16 


.180 


7 


329 


.090 


.110 


.109 


9 


63 


.185 


8 


350 


.105 


.125 


.125 


8 


77 


.205 


9 


277 


.120 


.140 


.140 


7 


59 


.205 


10 


226 


.135 


.150 


.150 


7 


5o 


.215 


11 


135 


.130 


■US 


.160 


7 


18 


.210 


12 


64 


.165 


•1/5 


.170 


6 


7 


.240 


13 


30 


.165 


.170 


.178 


6 


2 


.170 


14 


" 


.150 


.150 


.185 


6 


1 


.200 


15 


l 


.0S0 


.080 


.192 


6 






16 


4 


.200 


.200 


.200 


5 






Average 




.112 


•137 






.20 


No. years 
















to grow 




9 






7 




5 


one inch 

















Total No. trees— 1593. 

No. trees showing increased growth— 294, or 18 per cent. 



45 



46 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 



GROWTH IN THE ORIGINAL FOREST 

It is interesting to compare the growth in diameter 
of trees growing in the original forest with the figures 
just given for cut-over land. Stem analyses were made 
on 298 trees in original forest near Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, from 
which the table given below has been compiled. These 
measurements were taken at the lumber job of Patrick 
Moynehan, who was cutting on the southerly edge of 
the Park and on the Brandreth tract. 

The results differ considerably from those given by 
the present writer in a report made for Dr. Webb, and 
published in the final report of the Special Committee 
of the Assembly whose chairman was Hon. Thomas 
H. Wagstaff and whose report was transmitted Feb- 
ruary 15, 1897. The rate of growth there given was 
derived from measurements printed in a State report, 
and was considerably more rapid than that which is 
now found to exist. This further study makes it evident 
that the estimate previously reached was too large. 



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48 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

GROWTH IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF A TREE. 

An exceedingly interesting question is the rate of growth in dif- 
ferent parts of the same tree. It must be borne in mind that the 
material for growth is elaborated within the crown from material 
derived from the air and the roots, and that this elaborated sap 
comes down in the inside of the bark. It is not difficult to see that 
within the crown the rate of growth must be more rapid at the 
lower part than near the top, because each branch adds a certain 
amount of material for the growth below which the stem above did 
not have. In general, except close to the ground, the growth falls 
off below the crown. In the case of trees very much suppressed it 
may happen that not enough material for growth is formed in the 
crown to reach the lower part of the stem, and in some cases the 
number of annual rings on the stump will not represent accurately 
the age of the tree, because for some years there may have been no 
growth whatever in the lower part of the stem. This happens, 
however, usually only in the case of dying trees. The width of the 
annual rings is smaller at the lower part of the stem than above, 
even if the same amount of material is brought down, because it 
has to extend over a larger surface. The results of the measure- 
ments taken on about 2,000 Spruces show the largest growth in the 
crown, the smallest at the top of the first log, and a medium growth 
on the stump. Where the trees had an increased growth after 
thinning, the largest growth was at the stump. The fact that the 
increased growth at this part of the stem is out of proportion to 
that above has led some observers to believe that it is not necessary 
for all the food materials to be digested in the crown before they 
can be used in growth. This theory is the result of the phenome- 
non just mentioned, and of the fact that those roots of a tree which 
are in the richest soil grow to the largest size. In order to present 
more clearly the relation of the rate of growth at the different 
parts of the tree under the new influences of light and space after 
thinning, the following table has been made from fifty-nine trees, 
all of which showed accelerated growth on the stump : 



TABLE 9 



MEAN ANNUAL DIAMETER GROWTH 


Diam. 
Inches 


On the Stump 


Top of 1st Log 


Top of 2d Log 


No. ot 
trees 
















1886-1888 


1888-1896 


1886-1888 


1888-1896 


1886-1888 


1888-1896 




6 


.140 


.20 


.12 


.12 






1 


7 


.105 


.24 


.12 


.14 


.15 


.16 


12 


8 


.125 


.20 


.12 


.15 


.16 


.20 


12 


9 


.110 


.20 


.11 


.12 


.14 


.16 


15 


10 


.130 


.21 


.11 


.16 


.15 


.22 


10 


ii 


.105 


.17 


.10 


.11 


.12 


.16 


5 


12 


.170 


.23 


.08 


.14 


.20 


.22 


4 


Average 


.13 


.21 


.11 


•13 


.15 


.18 


59 




These results make it clear that measurements taken at the top 
of the first or second log cannot safely be used in reasoning- about 
grovth on the stump, or vice versa. 



VII 

VOLUME TABLES 

Volume tables show the contents of standing timber. 
The primary object ot the construction of such tables 
in this case was for use in working up the results of the 
1046 acre measurements taken in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 
but it will be seen that they supply in addition the 
means of estimating standing timber with accuracy 
and despatch whether the result is desired in standards, 
board feet, cubic feet of merchantable timber, or in cords. 
They are based on measurements of the product of trees 
of different sizes actually cut in the woods. 

Mention has already been made of the 2006 stem an- 
alyses of small timber cut for pulp at Santa Clara, New 
York, and of the 298 analyses of trees cut into logs 
on the edge of the Park. The volume tables have been 
computed from the results of these stem analyses. 
Since this study is primarily for use in practical forestry, 
only tables of merchantable yield were made. For this 
purpose tables have been calculated which show the 
number of standards, board feet, merchantable cubic 
teet, and cords contained in trees of different heights 
and diameters. 



A" 



I 



VOLUME TABLES 51 

VOLUME TABLE OF STANDARDS 

The number of standards in each tree was deter- 
mined by Dimmick's Rule, which is the common scale 
used in the Adirondacks. The trees were worked up 
together by grouping them in diameter classes differing 
by one inch, and in height classes differing by five feet. 
It was found that the average results were so regular 
for the trees of different diameters and heights that it 
was possible to make a table by merely eliminating 
the irregularities by means of curves. (See p. 44.) At 
first the results of the trees cut for pulp at Santa Clara 
were kept separate from the results of the large trees 
cut in the Park, but the two series were found to cor- 
respond so exactly that they were thrown together into 
the single table of standards given below. The diame- 
ters in this table are taken breast-high, or four and one- 
half feet from the ground. Lumbermen usually refer 
to the diameter inside the bark on the stump, but that is 
an unsatisfactory measure, since the height of the stump 
varies greatly. In dealing with standing timber meas- 
urements must be taken outside the bark. A com- 
parison of the diameter inside the bark on the stump 
with the diameter breast-high showed that, in the trees 
analyzed, the former was on the average three-quarters 
of an inch (exactly 0.79) larger than the diameter 
breast-high. 



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VOLUME TABLES 53 

VOLUME TABLE OF BOARD FEET 

To construct this table the contents in board feet was 
determined for each of the 298 trees analyzed near 
Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne by means of the well-known Scribner's 
Rule. The relation between the board feet and the 
standards was then found for each tree by dividing the 
number of board feet from Scribner's Rule by the num- 
ber of standards from Dimmick's Rule. The average 
results for the different diameters, with the irregulari- 
ties eliminated by means of curves, are given in the 
following table: 



table 10 

Diameter Number of 

Breast-high. Board feet in one 

Inches. Standard. 

9 HI 

10 146 

11 I50 

12 154 

13 • 158 

14 l6l 

15 l64 

16 168 

17 171 

18 174 

19 177 

20 l8o 

21 183 

22 186 

23 189 

24 I9 2 



/ 



54 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

The table of standards was then converted into board 
feet by multiplying the number of standards of each di- 
ameter by the factor corresponding to that diameter 
in the small table. These factors do not correspond 
closely, except for the largest diameters, with those 
adopted by common practice in the Adirondacks. The 
latter range from 190 to to 200 board feet to the stand- 
ard. The present figures, however, are taken directly 
from the logs by the use of the two rules, and therefore 
show the actual relation between Scribner and Dim- 
mick. Since Scribner undervalues small logs, such 
logs scaled in standards would also overrun these 
figures, because they are made directly from the rules, 



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56 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

VOLUME TABLE OF MERCHANTABLE CUBIC FEET. 

This table was constructed for the purpose of com- 
puting the number ot cords of pulp-wood in trees of 
different diameters and heights. It was determined in 
the same manner as the table for standards, except that 
only trees which had been cut for pulp at Santa Clara 
were used. The merchantable cubic feet represent the 
amount of wood in each tree actually used for pulp. 

table 13 

VOLUME TABLE FOR SPRUCE — III 



Diam. 

breast 

high 

Inches 




HEIGHT OF 


THE TREE IN FEET. 






25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 




MERCHANTABLE CUBIC FEET OF PULP-WOOD. 


5 


I.I 


1.2 


i-3 


1.4 


1.5 


1.6 


1-7 






6 


1.6 


1.8 


2.1 


2.4 


2.8 


3-2 


3.6 


4.0 




7 


2.1 


2.5 


3-0 


3.6 


4.2 


4-8 


5-4 


6.0 


6.6 . 


8 




3.i 


3-9 


4.8 


5.6 


6.5 


7.3 


8.0 


8.8 


9 




3.8 


4.9 


5-9 


6.9 


8.0 


9.0 


9-9 


II.O 


10 






6.0 


7.2 


8.4 


9.6 


10.9 


12.2 


13.5 


11 






7.i 


8.6 


10. 1 


11.6 


13.1 


14.6 


16.1 


12 








10.0 


11.7 


i3-5 


15.2 


17.0 


18.8 


13 










13.4 


154 


17.3 


19.4 


21.5 


14 










15.1 


17.3 


19.5 


21.8 


24.2 










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VOLUME TABLES $? 



VOLUME TABLE OF MERCHANTABLE CORDS. 

In order to convert solid cubic feet into cords it is 
necesssary first to divide by one hundred and twenty- 
eight, the number of cubic feet in one cord, and then to 
divide by a factor which shall represent the relation be- 
tween solid and stacked wood. In Germany this factor 
has been found from a large number of experiments to 
be 0.65 for round billets stacked in the woods. In con- 
sequence of irregularities in shape due to roughness of 
the bark and to swellings where the branches entered 
the trunk, this figure seems to give results too large for 
rossed billets. For the casein hand, 0.7 is more accu- 
rate. When the results of dividing the number of cubic 
feet found in Table 13 by the factor 0.7 are compared 
with those obtained by dividing the values in the table 
of standards by 2.92, which is the number of standards 
in one cord, determined by the Santa Clara Lumber 
Company from several thousand cord measurements, 
they are found to correspond almost exactly. After this 
confirmation of the factor 0.7, it was adopted, and the 
table of cords was constructed by dividing the values 
in the table for cubic feet by one hundred and twenty- 
eight and the result by 0.7. 



TABLE 14 
VOLUME TABLE FOR SPRUCE — IV 



Diam. 

breast- 
high. 
Inches. 


HKIGHT OF THE TRBB IN FEET. 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


5o 


55 


60 


65 


MERCHANTABLE CORDS OF PULP- WOOD 


5 


.012 


.013 


.014 


.015 


.017 


.018 


.019 






6 


.019 


.020 


.023 


.026 


.030 


•035 


.040 


.044 




7 


.023 


.028 


.033 


.040 


.047 


.054 


.060 


.067 


.074 


8 




•035 


.043 


.054 


.062 


.072 


.081 


.089 


.098 


9 




.042 


.055 


.066 


.078 


.089 .100 


.XIO 


.123 


10 






•067 


.080 


.094 


.107 


.122 


.136 


.150 


11 






.079 


.096 


.112 


.128 


.145 


.163 


.180 


12 








.in 


.Oi 


.150 


.168 


.190 


.210 


'3 










.149 


.171 


•'93 


.215 


.240 


'4 










.168 


.193 


.217 


.242 


.270 



VIII 

VALUATION SURVEYS. 

In making a working plan, the first step is to determine 
the amount and condition of the growing stock. In 
order to do this and to obtain data which would permit 
the prediction of future crops, the trees were counted 
and measured on 1046 acres on different parts of the 
Park. Since there are approximately 27,533 acres in 
Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, not including the lakes and the 
fenced portion, these measurements cover about one in 
every twenty-eight acres, and supply the basis for a 
very thorough acquaintance with the standing timber. 
Each acre was run out in a strip ten chains long and 
one chain wide. The length was actually chained off 
in every case and all the trees were measured for one- 
half chain on each side. The latter distance was either 
chained, paced off, or estimated. The measuring crew 
speedily became expert in estimating the distance at a 
glance. The sound Spruce was callipered down to two 
inches and the smaller trees were counted. Other 
species were callipered down to ten inches when ap- 
parently perfectly sound. 

The strip method (or chain method, as this modification of it is 
called) has the advantage of giving a very fair representation of a 
large area, because it traverses so much ground. Square acres, 
where the lines and corners are carefully measured, are more ac- 
curate for single cases, and a number were taken for illustrative 

59 



60 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

purposes, but each acre is confined to a single situation and the 
possible number is so small, on account of the length of time re- 
quired to take them, that the general average is not as good as by 
the chain method. 

After the valuation surveys were completed in the 
field their results were worked out, with the object of 
finding the stand of Spruce on the area surveyed. To 
this end the average diameters and heights of the trees 
were first ascertained for each acre, then the general 
average was found for all the acres, first massed in 
groups and then all together, and finally the last result 
was used to get from the Volume Tables and the aver- 
age number of trees per acre the amount of standing 
timber on all the acres taken together. From this 
sum it was easy to find the average stand per acre. 

The average diameters and heights were calculated as follows : 
The average diameters were computed for all trees on each acre 
six inches and over in diameter, ten inches and over, twelve inches 
and over, and fourteen inches and over. The heights correspond- 
ing to these diameters were determined from the large number of 
height measurements which were taken throughout the Park in 
connection with the valuation surveys. Eight hundred such 
measurements were made with a German instrument, Faustmann's 
Spiegelhypsometer, and recorded in connection with the acres on 
which they were made. The height measurements for each group 
of acres were entered on cross-section paper, the diameters being 
laid off on the horizontal and the heights on the vertical lines, and 
a regular curve was drawn through the points which represented 
the measurements. From these curves the heights corresponding 
to the various diameters were found. 

For the purpose of working them up, the valuation 
surveys were grouped in two ways : First, according 
to the situation, under the heads of Swamp land, Spruce 




Measuring Timber with Callipers. 



w 



VALUATION SURVEYS 6 1 

flat, Hardwood land, and Spruce slope ; and second, ac- 
cording to the yield in thousands of board feet of all 
trees ten inches and over in diameter. 

Within each class of these groups the average number of trees 
per acre of each inch in diameter was first calculated, and then the 
average diameter, height, and number of trees per acre were com- 
puted for trees six inches and over in diameter, ten inches and 
over } twelve inches and over, and fourteen inches and over, as well 
as the average number of trees per acre under two inches and from 
two to six inches in diameter. 

The average diameters and heights and the average number of 
trees per acre being known, it was possible to determine the yield 
in board feet and standards from the Volume Tables already given. 
The yield was found first for trees fourteen inches and over in 
diameter by multiplying the number of trees by the value in the 
Volume Tables corresponding to the average diameter and height. 
In the same manner the contents of trees twelve and thirteen 
inches in diameter, ten and eleven inches, and six to nine inches 
were computed and added to that found for trees over fourteen 
inches, and the total contents of all trees six inches and over, ten 
inches and over, and twelve inches and over were found by ad- 
dition. 

The following tables (15 and 16) give the condensed 
results of the 1046 valuation surveys as to number of 
trees, dimensions, and yield, per acre, classified ac- 
cording to situation. 



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4 



64 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

It will be noticed, in the preceding tables, that the average diam- 
eters and heights have been determined only for trees six, ten, 
twelve, and fourteen inches and over, in each type of forest. In 
computing the number of board feet and standards by the method 
just described it was necessary to know the average heights and 
diameters of all trees from six to nine inches, ten and eleven, twelve 
and thirteen, and fourteen inches and over in diameter in order to 
get the totals by addition as before. The diameters were computed 
directly from the table giving the average number of trees for each 
inch in diameter, and the heights were determined in the following 
way : Having already the average heights for all trees six, ten, 
twelve, and fourteen inches and over, these values were entered on 
cross-section paper, laying off the diameters on the horizontal and 
the heights on the vertical lines. A curve was drawn through the 
points, and the heights corresponding to the diameters in the 
following table were obtained by interpolation. 

Table 17 gives the average dimensions of all trees 
within certain specified limits of size in diameter, on 
lour kinds of land. 

Table 18 gives a complete summary of the Spruce 
over two inches in diameter measured on the 1046 
acres. In this case the acres are grouped with refer- 
ence to the total yield, cutting to ten inches, accord- 
ing as it rounds up to 1000 feet, 2000 feet, 3000 feet, 
etc. In each class the total number of acres in- 
volved is given, and the average number of trees per 
acre. For the sake of accuracy fractions of trees have 
been given. In the case of the large diameters there is 
less than one tree of each diameter per acre, and the 
result is often a very small fraction. The fractions have 
been rounded off. 



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C fl 
— c3 

It 



c/T o 

*S » 
-eg 

1- 

Z a> 
<u > 
E° 

rt»d 



3> 



yj 



Av. height 
of trees 

over 
14 inches. 

Feet 


t^ r^ oq i^ 


Av. diam. 
of trees 

over 
14 inches 
breast- 
high. 

Inches 


^D vO vO O 


Av. height 
of trees 
12 and 13 
inches. 

Feet 


lo vO vO vO 


Av. diam. 
of trees 
12 and 13 
inches 
breast- 
high. 

Inches 


N N N N 


Av. height 
ot trees 
10 and 11 
inches. 

Feet 


vr> ir> i/~» in 


Av. diam. 
of trees 
10 and 11 
inches 
breast- 
high. 

Inches 


O O O O 


Av. height 

of trees 

6 to 9 

inches. 

Feet 


t^ OO Tf "<f 

ro ro Ti- rr 


Av. diam. 
of trees 
6 to 9 
inches 
breast- 
high. 

Inches 


r^ t^ t^ t^ 


a 

o 

'■§ 

3 

02 


Swamp Land 
Spruce Flats 
Hardwood Land 
Spruce Slopes 



6$ 



TABLE 



Average number of trees per acre of different diam 
ing to the yield in board feet of all trees ten inches and 



YIELD OF ALL TREES TEN INCHES AND OVER 


Diam. 


1000 


2000 


3000 


4000 


5000 


6000 


breast- 
high. 

Inches 


(139 % 


(213 


(223 


(204 


(106 


(71 


acres) 


acres) 


acres) 


acres) 


acres) 


acres) 


AVERAGE NO. 


2 


22.30 


20.50 


2I.IO 


21.20 


21.50 


24.90 


3 


18.70 


19.30 


20.00 


19.IO 


19.90 


23.30 


4 


17.90 


18.10 


18.20 


18.30 


19.70 


21.40 


5 


12.80 


13.00 


12.90 


13.90 


14.60 


16.90 


6 


10.90 


10.60 


12.10 


12.20 


13.60 


13.60 


7 


8.70 


8.30 


9.20 


10.20 


IO.60 


11.90 


8 


6.80 


7.40 


7.80 


8.20 


8.90 


9.70 


9 


5-30 


5-40 


6.50 


7-5° 


7-30 


8.80 


io 


4.60 


5-30 


6.80 


6.90 


7.80 


8.70 


ii 


3.20 


3.80 


4.60 


5-5° 


6.50 


6.80 


12 


2.IO 


3.60 


4.10 


5.20 


5.60 


6.60 


13 


1.40 


2.60 


3.60 


4.20 


4.70 


5-i° 


14 


1.30 


I.90 


2.80 


3-5° 


4.40 


5.10 


15 


0.90 


1.50 


2.40 


3.30 


3.80 


4.00 


16 


0.50 


1.20 


1.80 


2.40 


2.60 


2.90 


17 


0.60 


O 90 


1.30 


1.80 


2.40 


2 20 


18 


0.30 


60 


1. 00 


1.20 


I.80 


1.90 


19 


0.20 


0.40 


0.60 


0.80 


1. 00 


1.20 


20 


0.20 


' 0.30 


0.40 


0.50 


O.70 


0.80 


21 


0.08 


0.20 


0.20 


0.40 


0.50 


0.60 


22 


0.04 


0.20 


0.20 


0.20 


0.20 


1.30 


23 


0.02 


0.10 


0.20 


0.10 


0.20 


0. 10 


24 




0.03 


0.07 


0.10 


0.03 


0.07 


25 


O.OI 


0.04 


0.03 


0.02 


O.04 


0.03 


26 




0.02 


O.OI 


0.03 


O.OI 


0.03 


27 






O.OI 


O.OI 




0.06 


28 


O.OI 




O.OI 






0.01 


30 






0.004 








31 






0.004 








34 












O.OI 



66 



i8 

eters, and number of acres measured, classified accord- 
over in diameter breast-high. 



IN DIAMETER BREAST-HIGH, IN BOARD FEET 


7000 


8000 


9000 


10,000 


11,000 


12,000 


Diam. 
breast- 


(37 acres) 


(21 acres) 


(4 acres) 


(5 acres) 


(1 acre) 


(2 acres) 


high. 
Inches 


OF TREES 


26.3O 


24.20 


23.50 


23.00 


16.0 


49.0 


2 


24.3O 


24.10 


18,20 


24.40 


9.0 


41.0 


3 


23.IO 


21.80 


14-5° 


18.40 


20.0 


34.o 


4 


18.4O 


18.50 


13.00 


17.80 


15.0 


23.5 


5 


H5° 


13.20 


13.00 


16.00 


25.0 


17.5 


6 


12.80 


12.90 


12.70 


12.60 


17.0 


19.5 


7 


10.60 


9.80 


11.00 


8 40 


20.0 


13.5 


8 


10.30 


9.40 


7.20 


8.60 


IO. O 


13.0 


• 9 


9.80 


9.60 


11.00 


8.20 


8.0 


14.0 


10 


9.60 


7.40 


8.50 


8.60 


12.0 


15.0 


11 


7.80 


6.40 


7.20 


8.60 


18.0 


17.0 


12 


6.40 


7.10 


7-5° 


6.60 


13.0 


14.0 


13 


6.30 


5.80 


7.00 


6.40 


12.0 


80 


14 


4.00 


4-9° 


6.20 


7.00 


4.o 


7-5 


15 


3-3° 


4.10 


7.00 


4.20 


5-° 


5.o 


16 


3.00 


2.30 


4.00 


5.60 


2.0 


6.0 


17 


2.00 


2.20 


3.20 


3.20 


1.0 


2-5 


18 


1. 10 


1.30 


1.70 


2.40 


1.0 


2.0 


19 


0.90 


1. 10 


1.50 


2.00 


2.0 


1.0 


20 


0.60 


1. 00 


1.70 


1.20 


1.0 


1-5 


21 


1.30 


1. 00 


1 20 


0.50 






22 


20 


0.30 


1.20 


0.40 






23 


0. 10 


0. 10 


0.70 


0.40 






24 


003 


0. 10 


0.20 


0,20 






25 


0.03 


0. 10 








0.5 


26 


0.03 


0.05 










27 
28 
30 
3i 
34 



67 



68 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 



Tables 15 and 16 give the results of the 1046 valua- 
tion surveys classified according to situation. The 
following tables (19-22) show the average diameters, 
heights, number of trees, and yield per acre of the 1046 
valuation surveys classified according to the yield per 
acre of Spruce ten inches and over in diameter. 

The average diameters and heights were determined, as is fully 
explained on page 60, *by averaging the values found for the indi- 
vidual valuation surveys. The number of trees per acre was 
determined directly from Table 18, which gives the average num- 
ber of trees per acre of each inch in diameter. The method 
described on page 60 was used to compute the yield per acre. 
It was first determined for trees fourteen inches and over in diam- 
eter by multiplying the number of trees by the value in the 
Volume Tables corresponding to the average diameter and height. 
The contents of trees twelve and thirteen inches in diameter, ten 
and eleven, and six to nine inches, were computed and added to 
that found for trees over fourteen inches, and the total contents of 
all trees six inches and over was found by addition. 



TABLE 19 
. SPRUCE 6 INCHES AND OVER 



Yield of all 














trees 10 






Average 








inches and 






diameter 


Average 






over in 

diameter 

breast-high, 

in thousand 


No. of 
Acres 


No. of 
Trees 


breast- 
high. 
Inches 


height. 
Feet 


BoaTd 
leet 


Standards 


feet, board 














measure 














T 


139 


47-3 


9.0 


48.6 


i860 


12.04 


2 


213 


54.6 


9-6 


53-2 


2796 


17.95 


3 


223 


65.8 


10. 


55-0 


3943 


25.42 


4 


204 


73-2 


10.2 


57-3 


5066 


32.22 


5 


106 


82.7 


10.6 


58.2 


5738 


36.42 


6 


71 


91.6 


10.4 


61.2 


7061 


45.68 


7 


37 


104.4 


10.7 


60.4 


8466 


56.35 


8 


21 


98.6 


10. 


63.3 


8956 


56.39 


9 


4 


113.8 


11.4 


64.0 


10019 


62.43 


10 


5 


110.6 


11.0 


64.0 


1 1 502 


68.39 


11 


1 


151.0 


'10.3 


60.0 


12679 


76.81 


12 


2 


157.5 


II.O 


62.5 


12598 


70.18 



69 






TABLE 20 
SPRUCE IO INCHES AND OVER 



Yield of all 














trees 10 






Average 








inches and 






diameter 


Average 






over in 

diameter 

breast-high, 

in thousand 


No. of 
acres 


No. of 
trees 


breast- 
high. 
Inches 


height. 
Feet 


Board 
feet 


Standards 


feet, board 














measure 














1 


i39 


15.6 


12.3 


61.7 


1416 


8.87 


2 


213 


22.8 


12.7 


65.5 


2382 


1445 


3 


223 


30.2 


13.0 


67.0 


3480 


21.50 


4 


204 


35.1 


13.3 


67.5 


4228 


25.74 


5 


106 


42.3 


13.5 


68.5 


5213 


31.98 


6 


7i 


47.6 


13.6 


71.0 


6005 


37.32 


7 


37 


56.2 


13.6 


70.6 


7405 


48.16 


8 


21 


53-3 


13.8 


71.8 


7868 


4778 


9 


4 


69.9 


137 


75-0 


9449 


57.60 


10 


5 


65.0 


14. 1 


75.0 


10498 


60.92 


11 


" 


79-0 


13.3 


72.0 


1 1095 


68.17 


12 


2 


94.0 


13.5 


72.5 


11772 


73.19 



70 



TABLE 21 
SPRUCE 12 INCHES AND OVER 















Yield of all 














trees in 




Average 


Average 








inches and 


No. of 


diameter. 


height. 


Board 


Standards 


No. of 


over in 
diameter 


trees 


Inches 


Feet 


feet 




acres 


breast-high, 

in thousand 

feet, Doard 

measure 


7-8 


144 


68.9 


1073 


6.53 


i39 


1 


137 


14.6 


70.7 


1927 


11.80 


213 


2 


18.8 


15.1 


72.4 


2910 


17.62 


223 


3 


22.7 


15.0 


72.6 


3608 


21.52 


204 


4 


28.0 


15.0 


72.5 


434i 


26.22 


106 


5 


32.1 


15.3 


75.2 


5153 


31.43 


7i 


6 


36.8 


15.6 


73-3 


6086 


3943 


37 


7 


36.3 


15.6 


78.6 


6933 


41.32 


21 


8 


504 


15.6 


78.0 


8474 


50.97 


4 


9 


48.2 


14.8 


79.0 


9155 


54.52 


5 


10 


59.0 


14.0 


75.0 


9615 


58.17 


1 


11 


65.0 


14.5 


75.0 


9800 


60.14 


2 


12 



71 






TABLE 22 
SPRUCE 14 INCHES AND OVER 



Yield of all 
trees 10 

inches and 
over in 
diameter 


No. of 


No. 01 


Average 
diameter. 


Average 
height. 


Board 


Standards 


breast-high, 
in thousand 
feet, board 


acres 


trees 


Inches 


Feet 


feet 




measure 














1 


i39 


4-3 


15.9 


72.4 


744 


443 


2 


213 


7.5 


15.9 


75-9 


1425 


8.48 


3 


223 


11. 1 


16.4 


76.5 


2109 


12.54 


4 


204 


13.3 


16.7 


76.4 


2846 


16.63 


5 


106 


17.8 


15.6 


76.7 


3382 


20.10 


6 


7i 


194 


16.4 


78.5 


4035 


24.06 


7 


37 


22.6 


16.7 


77-7 


4836 


3I.I9 


8 


21 


22.8 


17.0 


81.4 


538i 


31.46 


9 


4 


357 


16.6 


82.0 


6783 


40.24 


10 


5 


33.2 


16.6 


82.0 


7835 


45.82 


11 


1 


28.0 


15.7 


83.0 


6608 


38.64 


12 


2 


34-0 


16.0 


82.5 


7072 


42.16 



VALUATION SURVEYS 73 



In Tables 19-22 the average diameters and heights are given 
for trees six, ten, twelve, and fourteen inches and over in diameter. 
As was the case in computing the yield in Tables 15 and 16, it was 
necessary to know the average diameters and heights of trees six 
to nine, ten and eleven, twelve and thirteen, and fourteen inches 
and over in diameter in order to obtain the totals by addition. 
The diameters were computed directly from Table 18, and the 
heights were determined in the following way : Having already the 
heights for all trees six, ten, twelve, and fourteen inches and over 
in diameter, these values were entered on cross-section paper, 
laying off the diameters on the horizontal and the heights on the 
vertical lines. A curve was drawn through the points and the 
heights corresponding to the diameters in the following table were 
obtained by interpolation. 



■r 



W 



c 



*£ 






M-. o 

<d bo 
rt 0) 



•3° 



a 55 

Tl o 






> 



Average 
height 

of trees 
over 14 
inches. 


1 

fa 


Owimmu^O O w> O O O O 


Average 
diameter 
of trees 
over 14 
inches 
breast- 
high. 


00 


sOvOvO t^vOvO t^vO l^t^txvO 


Average 
height 
of trees 
12 and 13 
inches. 


£ 




Average 
diameter 
of trees 
12 and 13 
inches 
breast- 
high. 


OS 

O 
o 

a 


nNfONfON rjmcnw ts <s 


Average 
height 
of trees 
10 and 11 
inches. 


| 

fa 


in u-> u-> w> i/So »0 vO wkO vO vO 


Average 
diameter 
of trees 
10 and 11 
inches 
breast- 
high. 


O 

a 


OOOOmOhhOOh-.-!^ 




Average 
height 

of trees 
6 to 9 

inches. 


<D 
9 

fa 


in O O in O O in O O in»n O 


Average 
diameter 
of trees 
6 to 9 
inches 
breast- 
high. 


to 

5 
■q 

u 

a 


i^t^t^oo i^oooooo <N.t>.*^i>. 


O © 


f^,— (S O ONMN 

MN W « M 


Yield of all 

trees 10 

inches and 

over in 

diameter 

breast-high, 

in thousand 

feet, board 

measure 


»h w cn^invo w>o o» o •-• « 



74 



IX 

YIELD TABLES 

The material given in the tables in this and the pre- 
ceding chapters has been prepared for the purpose ot 
predicting future crops of timber after cutting to a 
given limit on lands yielding a known amount of Spruce. 
It is of great importance to the land owner to know 
how soon he can return to a certain tract of land after 
cutting and obtain the same yield as at first, and to 
what minimum diameter it will be most profitable in 
the long run to cut. There can be no doubt that the 
best immediate returns are obtained by cutting down 
to five inches. Forest management is out of the ques- 
tion for the lumberman who wishes to make all the 
money possible out of his property at once and without 
regard to its value in the future, for it rests on the 
premise that forest land is so much productive capital 
and that its productive capacity should not be impaired. 
It is easy to show that, if the Spruce is cut down to five 
inches, so long a time must elapse before there will be 
merchantable Spruce on the area again that it will not 
pay to hold the land for the next crop. In such a 
case there would be no timber worth cutting even for 
pulp in less than fifty to seventy-five years. Interest 
charges, taxes, and the cost of production cannot be 

75 



\ 



76 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

met for the sake of so meagre a crop as would result 
from the present system of cutting at the end of that 
period. 

Many lumbermen are now cutting, from lands lum- 
bered ten, fifteen, or twenty years ago, a yield as large 
as the first cut. As # a rule, they are cutting to a smaller 
diameter than at first, as, for example, in some cases 
where the first cut was to about ten inches, the second 
cut is removing everything down to five inches. Even 
where the limit is said to have been the same at both 
cuts, and the product the same, it must be remembered 
that, while no trees may have been taken under ten 
inches at either cut, many trees over ten inches which 
would now be merchantable at the time of the first cut 
were considered unfit for market. Nor is it probable 
that the cutting to the limit at first was as close as it 
would be now. 

The yield tables have been made in order to give 
definite information as to the production of cut-over 
Spruce lands. They embody the results of measure- 
ments on the 1046 test acres classified according as 
the yield was nearest 1000, 2000, 3000 board feet, etc., 
per acre. They give the number of acres in each class, 
the exact average yield of these acres, and the amount 
of timber which would be obtained in ten, twenty, and 
thirty years after cutting down to ten, twelve, and four- 
teen inches. The number of years which must pass 
before the land will yield exactly the same amount as at 
the first cut is also stated. These figures have not 
been evened off by curves in order to obtain regular 




Spruce Slope, heavy Timber near North Woodstock, N. H. 



I wr 









YIELD TABLES 77 

gradations, but represent the exact results from the 
1046 acres. 

The method used in determining the number of years which 
must elapse before the same yield can be obtained as at the first 
cut, and the amount of the cut in board feet per acre after ten, 
twenty, and thirty years was as follows : The table on page 45 
gives the average rate of growth in thickness of trees of different 
diameters on cut-over land, and the tables on pages 66 and 67 give 
the average number of trees per acre of each diameter. Knowing 
the average number of trees of each diameter for the different class, 
es of Spruce land, on acres scaling from 1000 to 12,000 board feet, 
and the rate of growth of trees of all diameters from five to four- 
teen inches, it is possible to predict the number of trees of 
merchantable size per acre, with their exact diameters, after any 
given number of years, and from these, by the use of the Volume 
Tables, the number of board feet per acre, cutting down to ten, 
twelve, or fourteen inches. Similarly, it was possible to predict 
the number of years which must elapse after the first cut 
(whether the limit was ten, twelve, or fourteen inches) before the 
land will produce again the same amount at the same limit. 

It will be noticed that no allowance has been made 
for the death of trees spared by the first cut. All dead 
trees two inches in diameter and over were callipered 
on 563 acres, and were found to average a fraction 
over three trees per acre. Of these about one tree per 
acre was between six and ten inches in diameter. The 
number of trees over five inches which will die in the 
next twenty-five to thirty years under the new condi- 
tions is believed to be so small that it may be neglected 
altogether. 



78 



THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE. 



TABLE 24 

Average number of dead Spruce trees on 563 acres at Ne-HVSa-Ne 

Park. 



Diameter. 
Inches. 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


No. ol trees 
per acre. 


0.76 


0.69 


0.58 


o.37 


0.26 


0.17 


0.14 


0.08 


Diameter. 
Inches. 


11 


12 


13 


H 


15 


16 


17 


18 


No. of trees 
per acre. 


0.03 


O.OII 


0.005 


0.002 


0.002 


0.002 


0.002 


0.004 



General average per acre— 3.12. 

The yield tables on the next pages are followed by 
examples which explain their use. 

YIELD TABLES 



Present yield per acre of Spruce, amount which can 
be cut in ten, twenty, and thirty years after lumbering, 
and the number of years which must elapse before the 
same amount can be obtained again, cutting down to 
ten, twelve, and fourteen inches. 



o 

H 
in 
< 

- 

w 

H 
W 



LO 




■A 


N 


X 


> 









< 


- 


< 






cc 




> 


u 



o 

— 
w 

111 



Interval 

required 

between 

equal 

cuts. 

Years 


K* 


•N COCOCO-'-i-"'*-''-*'-'-*^'!*-.'^-^ 




is 

o* 

OH 

« 

GO 


-S3 


*8 


•n -*oo *-«»q> o nwmo o m 
d c-J rJ-iAiriod <yooo6 r*»c>o^ 

MMMMMI-ll-IMMMMCt 


c3 © 


*>» 


mwfOO cocooo C>OOOOON 
OO OOO MOO WOO C>r^COOO -<<*■ 


No. of 
Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


'- 


OO m to croo tJ- r->. m q»\0 o o 

d m cotovd d tow' d cr> *n.v© 




PS 

OH 

w 

co 


if 3 


*S 


tJ-tJ-cO-*-© OCOOOvOOO O tN. 

oooo q w cs -* in ih co w tj-o 

^irvo t-"»*-*«od O^C?od rococo 


03 © 


*0 


OOOONOKhvOvO C-COO t-» 
co© m wxdoo co© ro^toooo 
^nOO CJ^O 0"T*fON O OOO 


No. of 

Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


s 


woof^t^Mioq^rj *n q q to 
ci cJ Tt-uAdod d crod tA dvd 

mhhhhimMhmh tON 




Is 

g" 

W 
CO 


§"2 
teg 


*> 


O Tf- « tooo O O t^^J-t^O ■* 

oq ^^^^q^^ount^woq o 


ee © 
o.© 


-a 


vo ro iy» to m o to t^vo f) O to 
M ro m fO CO -<1- to to co ^ to t>. 


No. of 
Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


V) 


co Tt- to to cooq co tj- cj vq q q 
lotosd t>^t>od d c>x>od d co 




Ed H 

3fc 


cc-§ 


►ft 


NmO "*CO NOOO O N f^O 

oq tj- to r->. q> co « ^^q <>>-«,« 
oo* 4 h iA m t^od tC in. dod co 

h N N COCO-^-rftovOvO N. 


It 

o.® 


a 


v© N OOO cototooo O^O^tnpj 

t-i OOOO M m o OO TfOC>N 
^CO-^- M M O -<*00 tJ"<4- o r^. 
h C4 CO^tovO t^t^O^ O -i w 




O 0) 


> >COCO'^vO >-" N w Ttm w M 
CO« N O O NtON 

H M M M Nl 


*3 
o 

s 


trees iu 
inches and 

over in 

diameter 

breast-high. 

in thousand 

feet, board 


2 

■ 
© 

a 


M N t^"t\r*0 ^sOO O^O m N 

1 



O 

£ 

H 

< 

PQ 

C* 
W 
H 
W 

Q 



vo 


W 


w 






> 
o 


J 


H 


Q 


H 


Q 


< 




w 


VI 




!* 


w 
u 



P< 

u 

W 
Ph 

w 
o 

p< 

Ph 



Interval 

required 

between 

equal 

cuts. 

Years 


•> 


vO com ON N M t^t^O ON 
m N N N cococococoti-coco 




°£ 

o Bd 
OH 

w 

go 


si 


^ 


^ cs tj- rj iri -rt-o ^f H *>. m oq 
vd od m -4vd d" tj- ci -xt- covd co 
►h w m n w cs co co co co -<J- ""» 


0J © 

o 0> 


*S 


tj-ion -*-o-oovo -»*oo con t>i 

OnNN O tsroo cooOOOvO 


No. of 
Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


'- 


cf> m iAod d •^■dvdtArodiA 

m N N N CO CO -*fr CO CO CO "■>""» 




pa 

^5 
<i ^ 

^ H 

ii 

W 
CO 


fl-a 


*8 


vO w O ^-OO O O O Q O vO m 

"T ^ ^A T *> H . H M . ^°°. "? ^f 

od d Nro^NHCh CN>d n" m 
mmmmmNmmmNCO 




^ 


vO O O ifl lovO O OOO ■<*■ •**■ O 
rovO m <-> cs oo <s m tj-o vO to 
co»-ooo m COO COO >-i O^w^t^. 
m m ii«SNCSCOCOCOCSCOtJ- 


No. of 
Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


s. 


Hiriq> c>vO co t>. T*- q- "«*■ q q 

M M M M N N PI P) (S (SCO'* 




w 

■*! 

o 

H 
CO 


11 

CO-3 


^> 


Ooonn w.1- cor^ocoo r^ 
qvq^N coq -^-q-i^q tj-o 
tJ- iAvd t^od <> n d m* m co <> 


o.® 


M 


cot*-c*coo m c>g^T)-Hooui 
vO oo o m ci Tf t^vD o r^ o O 

•HtHWHtMIHMwCSN 


NO. Of 
Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


<o 


oq m ^ , *co»o'^-q "?oq q o 

t^O^ 1 -! M *in(>N OvO O O^ 

MMMMMMMMNN 




is 


- • 

la 

CO -3 


•o 


COO M N Nf^rONNNN^ 

>^voq q i ^N ■^•TjrocMflH m 
vd m r^. « vd m d> « d '■tod d 

ih m N N P'lfOTfi^i^ vr«0 




q 


roNOoo w coo coco^otoO 
t^ N «-> Q ^^OOO t^MflH o 

O O* O^vO fO« QOTfNvfioo 
h MNrot u-kO vO OO O^ C> O* 




Yield of all 

trees 10 

inches and 

over in 

diameter 

breast-high, 

in thousand 

feet, board 

measure 


m N CO ■<*■ LTivO t^OO O^ O m N 



8o 



X 

o 



H 
< 

PS 

P* 
W 
H 
W 



M g 



►>* 


W 


H 


CI 


J 


> 




PQ 


n 


W 


< 




PQ 
< 


H 

P 

•J 






W 


w 




>< 


X 
u 



w 

CJ 

p* 
w 

w 
u 

Oh 

C/2 



Interval 

required 

between 

equal 

cuts. 

Years 


*s» 


uMnO.H w c» m co *<i- ts. Js. »o 

HhiCJCJCJCJCJCICJCImh, 




w 

OQ 


■ as 

85 


►<8 


CO CJ h coo o^ 00 . °o M . 9 O m 
is. •<"- CT> rt- rC to d do* »-ood cj 
m pin co co ^r lo Tf lo lo m o 


* 2 
o .© 


'^ 


0>i00i-i m CJCO hi O N O 
m *N h loCOCO NTfTfOO 
O O OCO CO lo CJ ro 1/1 co »h rj- 
CJ -f -^- irvO ts.CO OOO^Oi^N 


No. of 
Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


'« 


o r^o coco q q> cr> <*o q q 
o* d lo c> d o* co c> >-* d m co 
w CJ CJ CJ TTCO^fO"^ -"tf-o j>. 




H** 

O^ 

«2 


S3 


**i 


0>»O lo O n rf- m JN.O CJ O w 

vo co qo cj M o -t q ^ q q 

O* m CJ* loco* d lo Ttoo od coo 

hmhmN(HN«« lolo 


ci © 
O © 


^ 


CJ -*0 ^TO^iAlO o w m 
OvO o CI -^-o> t^ O OO loco 
OOO «0 OCOCJ O lo t^CO co 
m m N NCOnrtTfTt t*-cO O 


No. of 

Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


N 


is. q co oxo looo o^ cj co q q 
o" d ci tJ-o" od co d co co coo* 

MHMMMONNNrt-^ 




O 
K 
00 




* 


O ci ococjco colo o loco h 

IN.CSCOC1 OOtJ-lOCJCICOCO 

c" o* fAod c?» d ci ci tJ- iAo* o 

« M M M M W CO 




•Vi 


wOOOOO^COm iy-,0 rs 
VOOfON-*N "*mO "*Tf 
■«f O hi CO -^OO O O >n tJ-O O 

MHIMMdCJCJClOlO 


No. of 
Merchant- 
able 
Trees 


<0 


tocjts^cots.cjvot^cj q o 
coo* ts cr> O m t*- co -^ iA m* m 

M H HI HI HI H COCO 




i! 


*5 

00 5 


►Q 


COCO Tt- co O O OO rt O 'H-O 
"**" "^t "? "? M . °. w . *^" r i -^ ^ M . 
Ttcd do* o -4- hi h d i^od d 

m « N dcocO^-tf-cOTf 


"2 

e3 © 

o.® 


« 


^■WOO CJ vnO O CO loco CJ 
■*N O tKO CO COCO CO CO O X-n 

N-<t-oonoxro fsco o o 

hi CJ CJ CO ■<*■ ■*" loO NO X^ 




Yield of all 

trees 10 

inches and 

over in 

diameter 

breast-high, 

in thousand 

feet, board 

measure 


hi CJ CO ^t- loo fsco O O hi cj 



8i 



82 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

EXAMPLE NO. I. 

A man owns 30,000 acres which yield on an average 
3500 board feet per acre of Spruce ten inches and over in 
diameter. To what limit will it be most profitable in the 
long run for him to cut, how much can he cut annually 
if he wishes to obtain a sustained annual yield, and 
how soon can he return to the portion cut over the first 
year and cut the same amount of timber above the 
same diameter limit as at first ? 

Look in Yield Table I, column a, for the amount 
nearest 3500 board feet. 3480 in line 3 is the closest 
figure. All the desired information will be obtained 
on this line in the three tables. 

If the diameter limit is ten inches, the total stand 
is 30,000X3500=105,000,000 board feet; the same yield 
can be obtained in thirty-seven years (Yield Table I, 
column /) ; the area lumbered annually will be 
30,000-^37=811 acres; the annual cut will be 105,- 
000,000-^-37=2,837,838 board feet. 

If the diameter limit is twelve inches, the average 
stand per acre is about 3000 feet (Yield Table II, column 
a), the total stand is 30,000X30001=90,000,000; the 
same yield can be obtained in twenty-five years (Yield 
Table II, column /); the area lumbered annually will 
be 30,000-^25=1200 acres; the annual cut will be 
90,000,000-^-25=3,600,000 board feet. 

If the diameter limit is fourteen inches, the average 
stand per acre is about 2000 board feet (Yield Table III, 
column a); the total stand is 30,000X2000=60,000,000 



YIELD TABLES 83 

board feet ; the same yield can be obtained in twenty 
years (Yield Table III, column /); the area lumbered 
annually will be 30,000-^20=1500 acres; the annual 
cut will be 60,000,000-^-20=3,000,000. 

By comparing these results it appears that it will be 
most profitable to cut to twelve inches, since the an- 
nual cut is then largest. The area lumbered annually 
is about four hundred acres greater than if ten inches 
were the limit, but the annual cut is about 800,000 
board feet larger. Lumbering under these conditions 
would nevertheless be profitable, inasmuch as the aver- 
age stand per acre for trees twelve inches and over in 
diameter is about 3000 board feet. 

EXAMPLE NO. 2 

A man owns 1000 acres yielding 1000 board feet per 
acre of Spruce twelve inches and over in diameter. To 
what limit will it be most profitable in the long run to 
cut, if he lumbers the entire tract in one year, and how 
soon can he return for a second cut equal to the 
first ? 

Look in Yield Table II, column a y for the amount 
nearest 1000 board feet. The closest figure is 1073 
feet, in line 1. All the desired information will be ob- 
tained on this line in the three tables. 

If the diameter limit is ten inches, the average stand 
per acre is, in round numbers, 1500 board feet (Yield 
Table I, column a) ; the total stand is 1000X1500= 
1,500,000 board feet; the same cut can be obtained 
in twenty-seven years (Yield Table I, column /). 



84 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

If the diameter limit is twelve inches, the average 
stand per acre is iooo board feet. (See example.) The 
total stand is 1000X 1 000= 1,000,000 board feet ; the 
same cut can be obtained in sixteen years (Yield Table 
II, column /). 

If the diameter limit is fourteen inches the average 
stand per acre is about 750 board feet (Yield Table III, 
column a ); the total stand is ioooX75°=75 > °o board 
feet ; the same cut can be obtained in fifteen years 
(Yield Table III, column /). 

If ten inches is the limit, the tract will yield at pres- 
ent 1,500,000 board feet, and in twenty-seven years the 
same amount again, or together 3,000,000 board feet. 
If twelve inches is the limit, 1,000,000 board feet can 
be cut now, and the same amount every sixteen years, 
making a total in thirty-two years of 3,000,000 board 
feet. If fourteen inches is the limit, 750,000 board feet 
can be obtained now, and an equal amount in fifteen, 
and again in thirty years, or altogether 2,250,000 board 
feet. 

It will therefore be most profitable to cut to ten 
inches. Aside from the question of profit, it would be 
better for the forest to cut to twelve rather than to ten 
inches. 

EXAMPLE NO. 3 

A man owns 20,000 acres of Spruce land from which 
he has cut 6000 board feet per acre twelve inches and 
over in diameter. How much can he obtain in twenty 
years if at that time he cuts to ten inches ? 



YIELD TABLES 85 

Look in Yield Table II, column a, for the amount 
nearest 6000 board feet. It is found in line 7. In 
twenty years there will be about 3320 feet per acre cut- 
ting down to twelve inches (Yield Table II, column £-). 
What is wanted now is the corresponding cut down to 
ten inches. Look in Yield Table II, column a, for the 
amount nearest 3320. It is found to be about midway 
between the amounts given in lines 3 and 4. Now 
look for the corresponding point in the ten-inch table 
(Yield Table I, column a). Midway between lines 
3 and 4 gives the final answer, or about 4000 feet. 

EXAMPLE NO. 4 

A man owns 10,000 acres of Spruce land from which 
he obtained 1500 board feet per acre ten inches and 
over in diameter ten years ago. How soon can he cut 
the same amount ? 

Look in Yield Table I, column a, for the amount 
nearest 1500 feet. It is found in line 1. In this table, 
column /, twenty-seven years is given as the time to 
obtain about 1500 feet at the second cut. The land 
having been lumbered ten years ago, it will require 
seventeen years more for the required amount to grow. 

EXAMPLE NO. 5 

A man cut his Spruce land twenty years ago, getting 
2000 board feet per acre twelve inches and over in 
diameter. How much can he get now ? 



86 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

Look in Yield Table II, column a, for the amount 
nearest 2000. It is found in line 2. The same amount 
can be taken out in twenty-three years after the first cut 
(Yield Table II, column /). At the present time, there- 
fore, the land owner can obtain nearly the amount of 
his original cut. 

EXAMPLE NO. 6 

A man cuts his Spruce land yielding 5000 board 
feet per acre ten inches and over in diameter, and 
wishes to return in ten years. How much can he get ? 
Answer: About 365 board feet per acre (Yield Table I, 
column d, line 5). 



X 

YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 

In the discussion of the composition of the forest it 
was shown that, with the exception of some swamps 
and certain steep slopes and ridges, the hardwoods 
form an important element in the forest. Forty-two 
per cent, of the entire tract is classified as land on 
which hardwoods predominate. Until recently there 
has been comparatively little market for the Adirondack 
hardwoods, with the exception of Black Cherry. This 
has been largely due to the fact that hardwood lumber 
is difficult to handle, and because the demand has not 
been sufficiently great to make lumbering profitable. 
There is, however, an increasing demand lor Birch and 
Maple, and many lumbermen are now cutting the hard- 
wood timber where the haul to the railroad is not too 
long. In view of the fact that the Adirondack and St. 
Lawrence Railroad runs through the Park it is im. 
portant to know the amount of available hardwood 
timber. 

In the 1046 valuation surveys all species other than 
Spruce were callipered down to ten inches breast-high, 
great care being taken to measure only such trees as 
were apparently perfectly sound. The large hard- 
wood timber is, however, very old, and there are 
probably many trees apparently sound which in the end 

87 



88 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

would be discarded by the lumbermen. The propor- 
tion of unsound hardwood trees varies considerably in 
different parts of the Adirondacks, and it is extremely 
difficult to determine what proportion of cull should be 
allowed in the Park, because no satisfactory figures 
could be obtained for hardwoods cut in this immediate 
section. The number of board feet of apparently sound 
hardwood timber was first computed without making 
any deduction for cull, suitable allowance being made 
later in the estimate of yield. 

For the estimate of Birch the following table, recom- 
mended by Mr. James L. Jacobs, Superintendent of the 
Santa Clara Lumber Company, was used. 





TABLE 


28 




STANDING 


BIRCH 


)iamete 

in 
inches. 


r 


Contents 

in 

board feet, 


16 




157 


18 




222 


20 




302 


22 




400 


24 




499 



The average number of trees per acre and the aver- 
age diameter were determined from the valuation 
surveys, and the yield in board feet was found by mul- 
tiplication from the table given above. Only trees over 
fifteen inches in diameter were used in the estimate for 
Birch and Maple, as this is the average limit of the 




Yellow Birch. Santa Clara, N. Y. 



YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 89 

lumbermen, but in the case of the other species in 
mixture twelve inches was made the minimum diam- 
eter. Mr. Jacobs, from whom the table for Birch was 
obtained, estimated that although Hard Maple would 
contain more feet of wood than Birch, the amount of 
merchantable timber per tree would be from five to ten 
per cent, less, on account of the greater proportion of 
cull. The estimate for Hard Maple was accordingly 
made by deducting eight per cent, from the contents of 
the trees as given in the table for Birch. The yield of 
White Pine was determined by the use of the volume 
table for board feet contained in the study of that tree 
by Pinchot and Graves. The table given below, which 
was employed in determining the amount of Hemlock 
in the Park, is used by the lumber cruisers in northern 
Michigan. 





TABLE 


29 




STANDING 


HEMLOCK 


Mameter 








No. of trees 


in 
inches. 








per 1000 
board feet. 


18 








4 


20 








3 


22 








2 X 


24 








2 


26 








1% 


28 








'X 


30 








I 



90 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

In the absence ot a scale for estimating Cherry and 
Ash, the following table, which is used by Michi- 
gan lumbermen for estimating basswood and elm, was 
used: 

table 30 

STANDING BASSWOOD AND ELM 

Diameter No. of trees 

in per 1000 

inches. board feet. 

14 8 

16 6 

18 4 

20 ^y 2t 

22 2 

24 \% 

26 \% 

28 I 

In the case of Cedar no estimate was made, because 
it is used for so many purposes that it was impossible 
under the circumstances to obtain a satisfactory scale. 

There is at present but little market for Beech, and 
therefore this tree, together with Soft Maple and Bal- 
sam, was left out of the estimate. 

The average yield per acre is given in the table be- 
low, both for the entire 1046 acres, and for each of the 
four classes of situation. From this table it appears 
that there are 3004 board feet of Birch, 464 feet of Hard 
Maple, 982 feet of Hemlock, 74 feet of Pine, 15 feet of 
Cherry, and 16 feet of Black Ash per acre on the 1046 



YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 91 

acres measured, if no reduction is made for unsound 
trees. The percentage which should be allowed for 
cull in hardwoods has been variously estimated by dif- 
ferent lumbermen in the Adirondacks at from five to 
forty per cent. Probably about thirty per cent, of the 
Hemlock lumber will be found to be unfit for market. 
For the allowance actually made for cull in the various 
species see the estimates in the working plan on p. 114. 



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YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 93 



It has been said that the species mixed with Spruce 
were callipered down to ten inches. In order to de- 
termine the number of trees per acre of diameters 
smaller than ten inches, twelve square acres, selected 
as a fair average, were surveyed, and the trees of all 
species other than Spruce were measured down to two 
inches. The following table gives the average number 
of trees of the small diameters found on these acres. 



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YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 95 

On page 80 twenty-five years is shown to be the 
length of time which must elapse after cutting the first 
crop of Spruce down to twelve inches before the same 
amount can again be obtained. It is desirable to know 
what the condition of the hardwoods will be at the end 
of that time if the merchantable timber is cut now. It 
was not the purpose of this investigation to make an 
exhaustive study of the growth of the hardwoods, but in 
order to gain some slight knowledge of their develop- 
ment a number of measurements were taken by means 
of Pressler's Zuwachsborer. This is a short hollow 
auger, fitted with a fine wedge, by which a narrow cylin- 
der about an inch long may be bored from the trunk of 
a tree, to show its present rate of growth in diameter. 
With the help of this instrument a number of measure- 
ments were taken of the growth of trees commonly 
found in mixture with the Spruce. The number of 
trees measured, their average diameters, and the num- 
ber of years required to grow one inch in diameter are 
given in the table below. It was found that the growth 
for the different diameters varied so greatly that an av- 
erage was taken of the trees of all diameters. It will 
be seen that the rate of growth of the hardwoods is 
very slow. Thus, the time required for Birch to grow 
one inch in diameter is twenty years, and for Hard 
Maple sixteen. 



96 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

TABLE 33 

THE RATE OF GROWTH IN DIAMETER OF 

ASSOCIATED SPECIES 



Species 


No. of trees 
measured 


Average diam- 
eter of trees 
measured. 
Inches. 


No. of years 

required to 

grow one inch 

in diameter 


Birch 


78 


12.5 


20 


Beech 


16 


12.7 


*3 


Hard Maple 


16 


15.0 


16 


Hemlock 


141 


16.6 


25 


Balsam 


63 


10.5 


i3 


Soft Maple 


21 


10.5 


*7 



Knowing the number of trees of the small diameters 
and their rate of growth, it is possible to make a fair 
forecast of the future crops. It seems, however, that, 
in view of the fact that a large number of the Birch 
measured were very old, twenty years is too slow a 
rate of growth for the small trees, which would enjoy 
after the cutting a considerably larger amount of space 
than at present. Fifteen years seems to be a conserva- 
tive estimate for the rate of growth of young hardwoods 
from ten to fifteen inches in diameter, and this estimate 
is confirmed by observations made on the same species 
in northern Michigan. 

If the Birch and Maple are cut down to fifteen inches 
they will yield 3468 board feet per acre. At the end of 



YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 97 

twenty-five years, assuming" that the trees left standing 
will grow one inch in diameter in fifteen years, the 
second cut would yield about 400 board feet per acre. 
If, however, eighteen inches were made the lower limit 
or the first cut, 2440 feet could be taken out now, and, 
in twenty-five years the land would yield 1057 board 
feet per acre if the second cut took all trees down to 
fifteen inches. From these figures it appears that the 
hardwoods, considered as producers of stumpage, are 
far less effective than the Spruce. It should be noted, 
however, that the estimate of yield (p. 116) is based on 
a first cut of but half the standing hardwoods. It is 
therefore certain that in actual practice the second cut 
would be far better than the estimate given above, and 
altogether probable that both in stumpage and in cash 
value it would exceed the first. 



PART II 

THE WORKING-PLAN 

XI 

TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 

Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park is a body of forest land, roughly 
triangular in outline, with the longest side to the north. 
It lies in the west central portion of the Adirondack 
Mountains of northern New York, and is traversed in 
a northeasterly direction by the Adirondack and St. 
Lawrence Railroad. About two-thirds of the area is in 
townships y] and 38 of Hamilton County, while the 
western third lies in Herkimer County, townships 42 
and 43 From east to west the Park stretches from 
Little Tupper Lake to Big Rock Lake, and includes 
the latter, together with Lake Lila, Lake Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, 
and a portion of the headwaters of Beaver River. 
Other waters of the Park drain through Little Tupper 
Lake to the Raquette River, and through Cranberry 
Lake to the east branch of the Oswegatchie. Both 
these lakes are outside its boundaries. The general 
elevation is from 1700 to 2000 feet above sea level. 

The whole Park includes an area of about 40,000 
acres. Of this total about 10,000 acres are fenced and 
have been omitted from the investigation. The area 
covered by the working plan is then about 30,000 acres. 

The general character of the country is hilly and 






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THE WORKING-PLAN 99 

somewhat broken, with low swampy tracts near the 
streams and lakes. Numerous knolls and ridges, from 
a few yards to over three hundred feet in height, rise 
from the lower ground. In general the ridges or series 
of ridges run northeast and southwest. Low rounded 
knolls rising above swampy ground are very frequent. 
More level areas, or flats, are of considerable extent ; 
some of them low and rolling and covered with glacial 
boulders. There are numbers of broad flat ridges. The 
higher hills are for the most part conical, with small 
tops, or consist of long narrow ridges. A glance at 
the map will indicate that the southerly slopes are apt 
to be rocky, abrupt, or often even precipitous. The 
northerly slopes are more gradual. The country shows 
in many ways the effect of the ice with which it was 
once covered. The soil is a glacial drift, and the man- 
ner in which the rocks have been smoothed off and the 
rounded boulders deposited on the flats and on the south 
slopes affords similar evidence. The shape of the 
ridges is due to glaciation. 

Granite, varying much in color and texture, is the 
principal rock. 

The typical soil of the Park is glacial gravel or sand, 
replaced by loam in richer situations. On steep slopes 
it is thin, and what there is usually collects in hollows, 
on benches, on the uphill side of rocks and trees, or in 
rocky crevices. On moderate slopes and high fiats the 
soil is deep, fresh, and porous ; on low flats moist and 
often deep ; on less level flats thin on account of the 
boulders ; and in swamps a deep muck. 



100 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

The conditions of heat, moisture, and ventilation are 
such in the dense and damp Adirondack forest that 
the waste materials which drop trom the trees and 
other forest vegetation decay slowly after falling. The 
result is a mass of partially disintegrated vegetable 
matter which has been accumulating for years, and 
which may cover the ground to a depth of several feet. 
This layer, deeper on low than on high ground, often 
becomes acid humus in the swamps. 

Rain is abundant. An indication of its amount is 
supplied by the rainfall of the upper Hudson, which is 
given by the State Engineer as follows, with the remark 
that in 1895 it was somewhat deficient : 

1 894 . 41-37 inches 

1895 36.67 " 

1896 45.21 

The temperature, as shown by records kept at Ne- 
Ha-Sa-Ne Park in 1893, 1894, 1896, and 1897, has a 
considerable, but not an extreme, range. The highest 
temperature for the four years was ninety-three degrees 
above zero, in July, and the lowest thirty-six degrees 
below zero, in January. Frosts occur in October of 
each year, but in only one case of the four do they con- 
tinue into May. The fall of snow is heavy, and it lies 
on the ground during six or seven of the twelve calendar 
months, beginning as a rule in November. 




< 

- 



^ 



XII 

TRANSPORTATION 

The conditions at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne P?.rk are very favor- 
able for forest management, and in no way more so 
than in its accessibility to the market. The Park is 
crossed by the Adirondack and St. Lawrence Railroad, 
which affords an outlet for the timber to various saw- 
mills located at no great distance, as at Tupper Lake 
on the north and Beaver River on the south, and the 
other mills scattered along the line. 

There is a system of roads and trails throughout the 
Park which could be enlarged and adapted for logging 
without great expense, by which the timber could be 
hauled to the railroad. East of the railroad a large part of 
the Spruce can be floated directly to the jack works near 
Keepawa, and the hardwood can be hauled on the ice 
in winter to the same point. In general the timber is 
not difficult of access. A portion of the Park is swampy, 
and there it would be necessary to build corduroy 
roads. The hills are not very high and present no 
serious difficulty for the lumberman. On a portion of 
the Park north of the railroad the logs would have to 
be hauled a considerable distance and in places up 
grade. Work in the woods, as well as the guarding 
of the forest against fire, will be greatly facilitated by 
the existing telephone connections throughout the 
Park. 



XIII 

REASONS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 

The forest at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park is in great need of 
silvicultural attention. Not only is there much unsound 
and worthless timber cumbering the ground, but the 
forest in its present state is virtually so much idle cap- 
ital. On any considerable tract of virgin forest the 
growth is about equalled in the long run by the los s 
through windfall and decay. New trees spring up and 
take the place of those which decay or are blown 
down, but the total stand remains approximately the 
same. Considered as a piece of real property, the 
virgin forest yields no interest. The timber itself rep- 
resents accumulated interest, it is true, but the pro- 
ducing power of the land is expended in maintaining 
the present total, without adding anything new. Under 
the present system the lumberman practically ignores 
the fact that forest land is productive capital. He 
speculates in the timber with little regard to the real 
productive capacity of the land. He cuts not only the 
mature timber, but the growing trees as well. In other 
words, he removes not only the accumulated interest of 
many years, but with it the most productive portion of 
the capital. If, however, the ripe timber alone is cut, 
and enough young trees are left to replace it, the growth 
of the small trees and of those which germinate under 
the new conditions will be actual added interest. That 




Young Spruce in the Forest. Santa Clara, N. Y. 



REASONS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 103 

is to say, the unproductive portion of the capital has 
been converted into money to be invested elsewhere, 
and the forest has been put into such a condition that 
its power of growth is utilized. 

The presence of a large amount of young growth and 
the prolific reproduction of the valuable trees makes it 
possible to manage the forest in such a way as to ob- 
tain a considerable profit now, and a very much greater 
profit in the long run. The latter is assured by the 
sustained and increased value of the forest capital, and 
by the opportunity to harvest successive crops at com- 
paratively short intervals. 

The present working-plan is based on the fact that 
the Spruce above an average diameter ot twelve inches 
can be removed without injury to the forest, and that a 
satisfactory reproduction can be brought about by the 
cutting. As has been emphasized elsewhere, this limit 
is not a hard-drawn line, but, on the contrary, only an 
average figure to aid in the determination of the yield, 
and to serve as a guide to the forester in marking the 
trees to fall. It will be necessary, for silvicultural rea- 
sons, to leave many trees above this diameter, and to 
cut many which are smaller. But a careful silvicul- 
tural study of the Spruce has made it clear that an 
amount of timber equal to the yield above twelve inches 
can be removed safely and in such a way as to bring 
about the desired reproduction. 

The working-plan is concerned chiefly with the yield, 
growth, and reproduction of the Spruce. Spruce is the 
most abundant species. Except Pine, Cherry, and per- 



104 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

haps Cedar, it has been the most profitable tree to 
lumber, and, on account of its ability to grow more 
rapidly than the hardwoods, quicker returns can be ob- 
tained from it under forest management. The lumber- 
ing of hardwoods must, then, be subordinate in the 
general plan. All marketable hardwoods may be cut 
now, for their reproduction is abundant and secure, 
but in this case no provision is possible to assure a sec- 
ond equal yield in hardwoods at the time of the second 
cutting of Spruce. The present study was made 
primarily for the Spruce, and the hardwoods were 
worked up only in their relation to it. Their growth 
and behavior can only be described provisionally until 
some study is made on lumbered hardwood lands. 

The objection will probably be made that if the mer- 
chantable Spruce and hardwoods are cut the remain- 
ing trees will be blown down. In certain places this is 
true, and in them it must be guarded against in the 
location of the cut. A large part of the hardwoods are 
on fairly deep soil, and are not easily uprooted, and in 
many cases the large number of trees which must be 
left because not perfectly sound or straight will prevent 
an undue thinning of the forest. In the statement of 
financial results ample provision and allowance have 
been made for leaving a large number of trees to 
furnish seed, for the protection of the soil, and to guard 
against damage by wind. In practice, the protection 
of the forest against windfall must be left to the man 
who marks the timber to be cut. 



XIV 

TREATMENT OF THE FOREST 

Forest management in the Adirondacks by owners 
other than the State must meet two conditions : 

ist. The returns must be substantial enough to 
make it a profitable real property investment. Other- 
wise the lumbermen, most clubs, and nearly all private 
land owners will be unwilling to adopt it. The State 
may be satisfied with two per cent, interest on the 
capital invested, but the lumbermen could not consider 
such a proposition. 

2d. The system of management must secure the 
establishment of a crop of trees to take the place of the 
timber cut, and it must improve the condition of the 
forest. 

Ordinary lumbering pays a high interest now, but it 
leaves the forest in a very bad condition. Intensive 
forest management would secure most desirable results 
in the next crop, but it would pay too low a rate of 
interest now. A practicable system of management 
must then be a compromise, bringing sufficient returns 
to the owner to make it profitable for him to undertake 
it, and yet insuring an ample reproduction to establish 
new crops. 

The cost ot building and maintaining permanent 
roads is so great that the lumbermen could not afford 
to keep all parts of the forest always accessible for 
logging. It will not be possible to continue the cutting 



106 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

on the same ground during a number of years, as is 
done in European regeneration cuttings and as would 
be necessary in the Adirondacks if the best possible 
reproduction were to be obtained without regard to 
expense, but each portion must be lumbered once for 
all, and the cutting must be so located that the repro- 
duction will take care of itself. 

It is essential to large companies with extensive 
milling plants that they should have a regular annual 
production of timber on which they can confidently 
rely. Such companies cannot afford to give up their 
business or to move their plants to new places as soon 
as the tributary land is exhausted. Forest management 
must secure for them a sustained annual yield by a 
suitable distribution of the cutting and by enabling 
them to cut the same land a second time in a reasonably 
short period. On the other hand a private individual 
or a club owning a small tract would in many, if not in 
most cases, prefer to cut the entire tract at once and 
then wait the required period before cutting a second 
time. 

Technically it will do no harm to the forest to lumber 
it entirely in one year, provided due care is taken 
to spare the small trees and to secure reproduction. 
( )n the contrary, it will place the whole tract at once 
in a condition favorable for rapid growth, whereas 
if some portions were left uncut for 15, 20, or 25 years, 
they would remain for that time in the condition of the 
virgin forest, where the decay and growth are about 
equal, and would thus be producing nothing. Further, 






TREATMENT OF THE FOREST 10? 

the lumber operations would be much cheapened by 
cutting the entire tract in a short time, and the expense 
of extra rangers and expert superintendence would be 
saved from the time the lumbering was finished till the 
second cutting. 

The working-plan for Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park has been 
made on two assumptions — one that it will be desirable 
to insure a sustained annual yield, and the other that it 
will not. The former would be accomplished by cutting 
an approximately equal portion of the forest each 
year. The area lumbered yearly would then be equal 
to the total area divided by the number of years which 
must elapse before any one portion can be lumbered a 
second time. If, however, for any reason the owner of 
the Park should desire to cut the entire area as quickly 
as the means at hand would permit, the plan would in 
no essential way be changed, except that the tract must 
be left for the allotted period before the second cutting 
without yielding anymore return. 

From the yield tables the period between equal cuts 
on the same area is determined to be twenty-five years, 
if, as is shown below, twelve inches is the minimum 
diameter to which Spruce should be cut in the Park. 

The yield per acre for the trees ten inches and over 
is 3703 board feet; the total stand is 101,954,699 
board feet ; the same cut can be obtained again in thirty- 
seven years (Yield Table I, column /, line 3) ; the area 
lumbered annually would be 27,533-^-37 = 744 acres ; 
the annual cut would be 101,954,699-^-37=2,755,532 
board feet. 



108 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

With twelve inches as the limit, the yield per acre is 
3045 board feet ; the total stand is 83,837,985 board 
feet ; the same cut can be obtained in twenty-five years 
(Yield Table II, column /, line 3) ; the area lumbered 
annually would be 27,533-^25 1101 acres; the 
annual cut would be 83,837,985-^-25 3,353,519 
board feet. 

With fourteen inches as the limit, the average yield 
per acre is 2400 board feet ; the total stand is 66,079,- 
200 board feet ; the same cut can be obtained in twenty 
years (Yield Table III, column /, line 3) ; the area 
lumbered annually would be 27,533-^-20 = 1377 acres ; 
the annual cut would be 66,079,200-^20 = 3,303,960 
board feet. 

By cutting down to twelve inches the annual yield 
would be 597,987 board feet greater than if ten inches 
be made the limit. It would be necessary to lumber 
357 acres more for this additional amount, but this would 
pay inasmuch as there are about 3000 board feet per 
acre over twelve inches. Technically it would be far 
better for the forest to cut to twelve rather than ten 
inches. It would be more profitable to cut to twelve 
rather than to fourteen inches, because slightly more 
timber could be cut annually and the area lumbered 
would be smaller. 

In order to facilitate the location of the cuttings on 
the map the Park has been divided into six watersheds, 
as follows : 

Lake Lila, 7470 acres, comprising the area draining into 
that lake, as well as a small section drained by Bog Lake. 



TREATMENT OF THE FOREST 109 

Lake Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, 4160 acres, including the area 
drained by the main part of this lake and the river 
between it and Lake Lila. 

Rock Lake, 6014 acres, comprising the watershed of 
the river emptying into the extreme lower part of Lake 
Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne from the North, and the portion of Beaver 
River below this lake, including the Rock Lake 
system. 

Nigger Lake, 2221 acres, covering the area drained 
by that lake and Beaver Dam. 

Gull Lake, 3206 acres, including the watershed of 
this and the other ponds in the northwest corner of the 
Park. 

Partlow Lake, 4,461 acres, comprising the area about 
this pond and the river into which it empties. 

If the Park is to be managed for a sustained annual 
yield, these watersheds may be subdivided, to suit the 
conditions of lumbering, so that about one twenty-fifth 
of the entire tract is cut each year. Otherwise they 
may be lumbered within whatever period is deter- 
mined upon by the owner. 



XV 

CUTTING 

The object of forest management may be said to be 
the production of the largest amount of the most valu- 
able timber in the shortest time on a given area. This 
is often best accomplished for a given species by form- 
ing dense even-aged pure forests. The largest amount 
is thus produced because there are no other species 
occupying the ground. The timber will be most valu- 
able because in such a forest the natural pruning is 
very uniform and complete, and the trunks are long 
and clear. The timber is produced in the shortest 
time because there are no spreading trees overhead to 
suppress and hold back the young growth, which de- 
velops without hindrance except for the natural crowd- 
ing within the stand. 

At Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park it will not be possible to pro- 
duce a pure forest of Spruce over any large area. The 
hardwoods, which are intimately mixed with the Spruce 
now, form a constant factor which cannot be eliminated; 
and without doubt in time their value will have in- 
creased to such an extent that their presence will be 
extremely desirable. In the original forest, however, 
the mixture is chiefly promiscuous, whereas if the trees 
were mixed in patches the advantages of both the mixed 
and pure forest would be attained. It should, there- 
ore, be the ultimate aim in locating the cuttings to re- 



CUTTING III 

produce the Spruce as well as the hardwoods in groups. 

There is a very large amount of unsound and worth- 
less timber in the forest at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, and one of 
the aims of the forester should be to increase the pro- 
portion of the valuable species and to bring the forest 
into sound condition. The land should be made to pro- 
duce only sound individuals of valuable species. This 
condition is far in the future, it is true, but the forester 
should have it constantly in mind. With this ultimate 
aim in view, and with the knowledge gained of the 
capacity of the Spruce under present conditions and of 
its silvicultural character, we are in a position to dis- 
cuss the immediate treatment of the forest and the 
principles that should govern the cutting. No detailed 
rules, but only general ones, can be laid down, because 
the conditions vary with each individual case. 

The application of such general rules to specific cases 
is the province of the forester. The imperative need 
of this skillful adaptation is the fundamental reason 
why rules of thumb, such as a rigid limit of twelve 
inches, cannot safely be put in force, and why the mark- 
ing of trees to fall must be done by some one well 
versed in the requirements of the forest. 

There are certain localities where the cutting of 
Spruce should be very heavy and where everything mer- 
chantable should be removed. These places are on thin 
rocky ground and exposed situations, where the danger 
from windfall is very great, and where, in the event 
of a partial cut, the uprooting of the remaining trees by 
wind would be inevitable. Such areas should be chosen 



112 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

with great care, and a sufficient number of seed trees 
should be left on the edge of each opening to seed the 
area to Spruce. Such conditions are found on certain 
Spruce slopes and on the tops of ridges and knolls. 
They are nowhere extensive. 

There are other localities, particularly swamps, where 
trees twelve inches in diameter are not plentiful, and 
where many trees under that limit can be removed with 
decided advantage to the forest. 

In general most large Spruce trees, say over fifteen 
inches, are ready to cut. The doubtful trees are those 
close to the limit, whether it be ten, twelve or fourteen 
inches. The trees which should be cut under the size 
limit are: First, those which show signs of decline and 
are more valuable at present than they ever will be 
again; Second, crooked or scrubby trees which can be 
utilized now for pulp, but which are crowding promis- 
ing young growth. Trees which should be left above 
the limit are sound, thrifty, growing trees, which ought 
to remain in order to seed up an area in Spruce, or 
to protect the soil. 

The general rules which should govern conservative 
lumber operations in Spruce timber are as follows: 

i. Only trees marked by the forester must be cut, 
and each tree marked must be cut unless a reason sat- 
isfactory to the forester can be given for leaving it. 

2. No timber outside the line of a road shall be used 
for corduroy, culverts, or other road purposes, until all 
timber cut for the clearing of the road has been utilized; 
and when more timber is necessary, all available trees 






CUTTING 113 

of other kinds within reach must be used before any 
Spruce is taken. 

3. All lumber roads must be marked out by the con- 
tractor with the cooperation and assistance of the 
forester. 

4. As a protection against fire all tops must be cut 
or lopped so that the thin branches will be brought in 
contact with the ground by the weight of the winter's 
snow. 

5. Extreme care must be taken to prevent fire. No 
fire must ever be lighted where it can get into a rotten 
log or into the duff. 

6. Great care must be taken not to injure young 
growth in felling timber, or to bark valuable young 
trees in skidding. 

7. Felled trees must be cut into logs at once, to re- 
lease young growth crushed by their fall, unless a rea- 
son satisfactory to the forester can be given for some 
other course. 

8. Any young growth bent over by felled trees must 
be released and allowed to straighten without delay. 

9. Provision for carrying out these regulations should 
be made in all contracts with lumbermen, and fines 
should be imposed by the contracts for failure to com- 
ply with them. 



XVI 

RETURNS 

Although none but apparently sound trees were 
measured in the valuation surveys, in making the final 
estimate of stand the following percentages were allowed 
lor unsoundness which did not appear on the surface: 

Birch and Maple 40 per cent. 

Hemlock 30 «« 

The low stumpage price given for Spruce and Pine 
is believed to equalize fully the loss through unsound- 
ness. 

Beech, Cherry, Ash, and Cedar are left out of account 
entirely. With this allowance for cull, the total stand 
of merchantable timber of the species named in the 
Park, taking 27,533 acres as the total wooded area, is 
as follows; 




u 



> 



TABLE 34 
MERCHANTABLE TIMBER IN NE-HA-SA-NE PARK 



Species 


Limit. 


Ave. mer- 
chantable 
stand per 
acre. Board 
feet. 


Total 

merchantable 

stand. 

Board feet. 






Spruce 

Spruce 

Spruce 

Birch 

Maple 

Hemlock 

Pine 


10 
12 
i4 
*5 

*5 

12 
12 


3703 

3,045 

2,400 

1,802 

278 

687 

74 


101,954,699 

66,079,200 
49,614,466 

7,654,174 
18,914,171 

2,037,442 






Il6 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 



According to conservative estimates the stumpage 

value of the various species is as follows: 

Per thousand 
board feet. 

Spruce $i 75 

Birch 3 oo 

Maple i 50 

Pine 2 00 

Hemlock (including bark) 1 50 

If one-twenty-fifth of the standing timber, cutting the 
Spruce to twelve inches, were removed and sold as 
above, with allowance for cull', the receipts for the first 
year would be: 

Board feet. 

Spruce 3.353,515 $5,868 65 

Birch 1,584,578 5,954 73 

Maple 306,167 459 90 

Pine 81,498 163 00 

Hemlock 756,567 M34 85 



$i3,58i 13 



In order to be entirely safe, it may be assumed that 
on account of the necessity of leaving certain trees for 
silvicultural reasons, because of difficulties of transporta- 
tion or a poor market, only fifty per cent, of the 
above receipts for the species other than Spruce and 
Pine would be obtained. The gross receipts for the 
first year would then be : 







' ^^S^H 1 




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' Ik, . « 




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w 






h. 

V 



^ 



RETURNS 117 

Spruce $5,868 65 

Pine 163 00 

Other trees 3,774 74 

Total $9,806 39 

The cost of administration for the first year is esti- 
mated to be: 

Protection $1 ,500 00 

Taxes (at 4c. an acre) 1,101 32 

Marking and inspection at 5 per 

cent, of gross receipts 487 28 

Total $3,088 60 

Net receipts=$9,8o6.39 less $3,088.60 $6,717.79, 
or for the area cut (1101.3 acres), $6.09 per acre. 

In order to determine what rate of interest on the 
cpital value of the property the forest is producing 
annually, it is necessary to place a definite value on 
the land. The highest price paid for virgin forest by 
the New York Preserve Board in 1897 was $7.00 per 
acre. 

It is, therefore, fair to use this figure for the sale 

lue of the property in the present case. On this 

.sis the present value of the property is: 
$7.ooX27,533=$i 92,731.00, 
on which sum the net receipts for the first year repre- 
sent a return of 3.5 per cent. During the succeeding 
years the taxes as well as the value of the cut-over por- 
tions will be less than at first, until the timber shall 
have again attained merchantable size, and the price 



Il8 TH£ ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

of the timber will necessarily vary considerably; so 
that a statement of the financial results cannot safely 
be made. A return of at least 3.5 per cent, can, how- 
ever, be obtained; for the decrease of the cut-over land 
in value as property will be followed by a decrease in 
the amount of taxes. This diminution in the cost of 
maintenance, and the probable increase in the price ot 
timber, will both be to the advantage of the owner, and 
the rate of interest on the capital invested will in con- 
sequence be increased. 

If the entire area were cut in one year, which for 
many reasons would be impossible, the gross receipts 
would be: 

$9,806.39X25=5245,159.75, or $8.94 per acre. 

The expenses of administration during the year in 
which the land is cut over are estimated to be: 

Protection $2,000 00 

Taxes (at 4c. per acre) 1,101 32 

Marking and inspection (at 2 per 

cent, of gross receipts) 4,872 84 

$7,974 16 

Net receipts, $243,642.00, less $7,974. i6=$2 35, 667. 84 
or $8.56 per acre. 

In this case the value of the land is not equal to the 
actual sale value of the timber, but this discrepancy is 
equalized by the cost of administration and the danger 
to the property through fire and windfall and other 
contingent risks which the owner must assume. 



RETURNS 119 

It would then be necessary to hold the land twenty- 
five years before an equal crop could be reaped. Dur- 
ing this period there would be a necessary annual ex- 
penditure for taxes and protection, for which $2,000.00 
per annum would be ample. This amount invested 
annually would amount in twenty-five years, at four per 
cent, compound interest, to $86,623.46. At the end of 
this period the land can be cut over a second time with 
the same yield of Spruce as at the first cut, and it is 
probable that on account of the rise in the value of 
Spruce much larger returns can then be secured than 
at present. 

If the Park were cut over in five years the annual 
gross receipts for these years would be: 

$9,8o6.39X5=$49,o3i-95, or $8.90 per acre. 

It is estimated that the expenses for the first year 
would be: 

Protection $2,000 00 

Taxes (at 4c. per acre) 1,101 32 

Marking and inspection (at 3 per 

cent, of gross receipts) 1,461 85 

$4,563 17 

Net receipts, $49,031.95, less $4,563. i7=$44,468. 78, 
or $8.07 per acre. 

During the following four years a slightly better 
showing would be made on account of the decrease in 
taxes on the cut-over land. 

There would then be twenty years in which an 



120 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE 

annual expenditure of about $2,000.00 for taxes and 
protection would be necessary. In twenty years these 
payments, at four per cent, compound interest, would 
amount to $62,887.80. 



* 



APPENDIX 

Fourteen valuation surveys, measured on cut-over 
land at Santa Clara, N. Y., in different situations and 
soils. 

In each case the amount of timber removed at the 
first cut was estimated by measuring the old stumps 
and tops; and the Spruce suitable for pulp was cut 
and analyzed, the contents determined, and the rate of 
growth in diameter computed before and after the first 
lumbering. 



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123 



L 



PLOT 
ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 












Mean 


Mean 


Mean 














annual 


annual 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Ave. 






growth 


growth 


growth 


trees 




cut 


height 


Cubic 


Stand- 


in diam. 


in diam. 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


in 
1896 


Feet 


feet 


ards 


87-91. 
Inches 


92-96. 
Inches 


of 61 
trees 
92-96. 
Inches 


ing in- 
creased 
growth 


2 

3 


















4 


















2 


10 


37.0 


46.4 


0.85 


.11 


.115 


.20 


1 


7 


27 


39-9 


156.9 


2.75 




11 


.165 


.24 


12 


8 


29 


40.9 


241.4 


4-47 
6.92 




"5 


:3 s 


.20 


12 


9 


32 


4 l 2 
46.5 




i3S 


.20 


*5 


10 


28 


380.8 


7.07 




«S 


.165 


.21 


10 


ii 


12 


48.0 


182.9 


4.24 




I? 


.175 


.17 


5 


12 


9 


43-7 


203.7 


3-55 




.195 


.23 


4 


*3 


I 


48.1 


22.0 


0.42 




It 


.20 


.20 


1 


H 


1 


39-8 


25.0 


0.44 




.20 


.20 


1 


Total 


149 




1587.7 


30.71 








61 



This land was cut over in 1891, at which time 30 Spruce trees with 
were removed. Situation : intermediate between Spruce swamp and 
Spruce rather scrubby. 



124 



^_ 



no. 3 

FLAT AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING 


Spruce 


Dead 
Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Cherry 


Diam. 
Inches 


6 

12 

16 
29 

20 
12 


2 

2 

3 

2 


5 

27 

25 
25 
25 
23 
12 

*3 

3 
4 

3 

i 


1 
1 


1 
2 


X 

1 

2 

I 

I 


1 
z 


i 
2 
3 
4 

9 
10 
11 
12 
i3 


103 


9 


194 


2 


3 


6 


2 


Total 






an estimated yield of 13.8 standards, and 8 Pine with 13.4 standards, 
Spruce flat. Soil: moist. Humus: deep. Seedlings: abundant. 



ia5 



^ 



PLOT 
ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 
















Mean 














Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Aver. 






annual 


annual 


growth 


Trees 




cut in 


height 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


1896 




feet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


of 70 


ing in- 






Feet 






87-88 
Inches 


89-96 
Inches 


Trees 

89-96 

Inches 


creased 
growth 


I 

2 

3 

4 

i 


















12 


39\i 


41.3 


0.74 


.09 


.10 


.09 


3 


I 


& 


43-8 


309.7 


6.19 


.09 


.US 


.18 


14 


49-5 


524.5 


1 1. 81 


.09 


.13 


.19 


19 


9 


49 


51.4 


593-4 


13-54 


.115 


' l l 


.205 


14 


10 


30 


52.0 


269.6 


10.12 


•13 


.18 


.22 


14 


ii 


i5 


574 


6.59 


.14 


.165 


• l Z 


4 


12 


2 


57.1 


42.0 


.94 


• 13 


.185 


.26 


1 


13 


I 


55.2 


25.7 
26.7 


.63 


.05 


• 135 


.135 


I 


14 


I 


57.* 


•49 


.10 


.10 







Total 


219 




2289.6 


51.05 








70 



This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 37 Spruce with an 
were removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Soil; deep, fresh, rich. Humus: 
oJL, Many young seedlings. 



126 



^ 



no. 4 

SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN 
IN 1888. 





MATERIAL LEFT AFTER 


CUTTING 








Dead 










Diam. 


Spruce 


Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Inches 






4 








1 


7 


2 


13 








2 


20 


5 


9 








3 


22 


3 


11 








4 


3 


3 

1 


2 






1 


I 


1 




2 
2 
2 


2 

2 
1 


1 
2 

1 


1 


7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 

T3 

14 


90 


14 


54 


5 


4 


2 


Total 



estimated yield of 17 standards, and one Pine yielding 1.7 standards, 
deep. Character of Spruce excellent. Nearly even aged. Density 



127 



PLOT 
0.2 ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. 
















Mean 














Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Aver- 






annual 


annual 


growth 


trees 




cut in 


age 
height 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


showing 


Inches 


1896 


feet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


of 13 


in- 






Feet 






87-88 
Inches 


89-96 
Inches 


trees 
89-96 
Inches 


creased 
growth 


i 

2 

3 


















4 


















i 


A 


47-0 


19.5 


0.32 


.065 


.065 






I 


44-7 


II5.9 
145.6 


2.26 


.085 


.135 


175 


6 


'I 


49-9 


2.76 


.105 


.13 


192 


4 


9 


51-3 


89.1 


2.01 


.115 


- 1 ? 


15 


2 


10 


6 


57.2 


91. 1 


1.92 


.135 


.16 


15 


1 


ii 


2 


57-2 


40.1 


1.03 


.15 , 


.15 






12 


















13 


2 


63.I 


50.0 


1.05 


.17 


.17 






H 


I 


64.7 


31.8 


0.72 


.11 


.11 






Total 


56 




583.1 


12.07 








13 



This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 11 Spruce, with an 
as in Plot 4. 



128 



^ 



no. 5 

santa clara, new york, which had been 

IN 1888. 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTEK CUTTING. 


Spruce 


Dead 
Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Diam. 
Inches 


i 

4 
3 

5 


I 
1 
I 

1 


5 




1 
1 


1 


I 

2 
3 
4 

I 
I 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


24 


4 


5 




2 


I 


Total 



estimated yield of 4.4 standards, were removed. Situation and soil 



129 



PLOT 
ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. 
















Mean 








Aver- 






Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 






annual 


annual 


growth 


trees 




cut in 


age 
height 
Feet 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


1896 


feet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


of 20 


ing in- 










87-88 


89-96 


trees 


creased 












Inches 


Inches 


89 96 
Inches 


growth 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 


20 


38.2 


38.2 


1.47 


•07 


.075 


•15 


1 


I 


3t> 


41.3 


205.7 


3-77 


.095 


.105 


.235 


3 


25 


43-o 


197.2 


3.71 


.11 


.125 


.215 


3 


9 


19 


47-5 


202.8 


443 


.11 


.165 


.235 


7 


10 


17 


49-3 


236.4 
322.6 


6.80 


•135 


.165 


.22 


4 


ii 


1 


51-3 


.136 


.16 


•27 


2 


12 


5S' 1 


I9I.7 


3-99 


.136 






13 


4 


5M 


100.3 


2.23 


.164 


.164 






14 


2 


557 


56.3 


1.42 


.16 


.16 






Total 


150 




1551.2 


32.76 








20 



This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 13 Spruce with an 
removed. Situation : Spruce flat. Soil : deep, rich, moist. Humus : 
Old stumps chiefly bunched on western end. 



130 



NO. 6. 

AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN 
IN 1888. 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING. 
















Diam. 


Spruce 


Dead 
Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Pine. 


Inches 


I 








I 






1 


5 




11 


2 








2 


10 


3 


21 


4 








3 


11 


1 


16 


2 








4 


19 




17 


4 








5 


1 


1 


13 















21 










7 


1 


1 


11 




I 


1 




8 


1 




5 


2 


1 






9 


1 




3 
2 


1 


I 


1 




10 
11 








1 


1 
1 




I 


12 
13 
14 


76 


6 


120 


16 


6 


2 


1 


Total 



estimated yield of n standards, and 6 Pine with 9 standards, were 
deep. Very gentle slope N . E. Spruce with moderately long crowns. 



131 



PLOT 
ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 












Mean 


Mean 


Mean 














annual 


annual 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Ave. 






growth 


growth 


growth 


trees 




cut 


height 


Cubic 


Stand- 


in diam. 


in diam. 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


in 

1896 


Feet 


feet 


ards 


87-91 
Inches 


92-96 
Inches 


of 45 
trees 

92-% 
Inches 


ing in- 
creased 
growth 


I 

2 

3 


















4 

i 


















II 


40.4 


49- 


0.87 


.085 


.15 


.205 


6 


I 


\l 


42.9 


1S °A 


2.69 


.085 


•13 


a 


9 


43-2 


^I'l 


2.94 


.115 


% 


7 


9 


21 


48.9 


248.8 


g 


.125 


.24 


12 


10 


28 


46.3 


378.3 


.145 


.17 


.215 


9 


ii 


II 


50.2 


176.4 


3 M 


.13 


.14 


.21 


2 


12 


2 


55-3 


43-2 


•175 


.255 


.28 


1 


13 


















14 


















S 


















\l 


















Total 


US 




1 195.0 


24.30 








46 



This land was cut over in 1891, at which time 34 Spruce with an 
removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Nearly level. Soil: deep, rich 
over the ground. 



13a 



no. 7 

santa clara, new york, which had been 

IN 189I 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING 


Spruce 


Dead 
Spruce 


Balsam 


Bircb 


Maple 


Cedar 


Fine 


Diam. 
Inches 


1 


5 
8 
3 
3 

1 
2 


19 
21 
21 
16 

1 

10 

7 
2 
1 


2 

1 


1 


2 


1 


1 
2 
3 
4 

I 

I 

9 
10 
11 
12 
*3 
J 4 

3 
3 


73 


22 


118 


8 


3 


3 


X 


Total 



estimated yield of 10.4 standards, and 1 Pine with .5 standard, were 
moist. Spruce of excellent quality. Old trees evenly distributed 



133 



PLOT 
ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 










1 


vfean > 


lean 


Mean 












a 


anual a 


anual 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Ave. 




g 


rowth g 


rowth 


growth 


trees 




cut 


height 


Cubic 


Stand- in 


diam. in 


diam. 


in diam. 


show- 


[nches 


in 

1896 


Feet 


feet 


ards 8 
I 


7-91. S 
aches In 


2-96. 
chefl 


of 9 trees 
92-96. 
Inches 


ing in- 
creased 
growth 


i 

2 

3 
4 

I 


3 


37-4 


2*3 


.12 


08 


08 






19 


37-7 


7».3 


1.30 


10 


10 






7 


24 


40.7 


U3.3 


2.75 


085 


10 


.18 


3 


9 


39 
32 


44.6 

49.6 
48.0 


%A 


6.76 
7.86 


12 
12 


13 
13 


.22 

.20 


2 

3 


10 


24 


307.2 


7.32 


13 


13 






XI 


21 


Si.b 


375.2 


8.10 


12 


13 


.26 


1 


12 


21 


56.2 


453-6 
105.5 


9-97 


•155 


16 






J 3 


6 


60.4 
61.8 


3.70 


.172 


172 






x 4 


4 


112.4 


2.2b 


.162 


16 






3 


i 


36.4 
09.2 


.84 


.08 


08 






3 


57.0 


1.81 


.226 


226 






Total 


197 




2445.6 


52.81 








9 



This land was cut over in 1891, at which time 10 Spruce with an 
were removed. Situation : Spruce flat. Soil : fresh, rich. Spruce of 



i34 



^ 



" 



NO. 8 

SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN 

IN 189I 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING 


Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Ash 


Cherry 


Cedar 


Diam. 
Inches 


3 l 

47 

37 

13 

1 

1 


1 

69 
51 
50 
24 

20 
9 
10 

1 
2 

1 

1 


1 
1 

1 
1 


1 
I 


1 


2 
2 
2 

1 
8 
2 
6 
6 
1 


1 
2 
3 
4 

I 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 

II 


172 417 4 


2 


1 


3i 


Total 



estimated yield of 2.6 
excellent quality. 



standards, and 1 Pine with 1.5 standards, 



»33 



^ 



PLOT 
ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 












Mean 


Mean 


Mean 


No. of 












annual 


annual 


annual 


trees 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Ave. 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


growth 


show- 




cut 


height 


ieet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


in diam. 


ing in- 


Inches 


in 

1896 


Feet 






87-90. 
Inches 


9296. 
Inches 


of 12 
trees 
92-96. 
Inches 


creased 
growth 


I 

2 


















3 


















4 


















5 


I 


294 


3-2 


.05 


.08 


.08 






6 


27 


39.0 


125.7 


2.22 


.08 


.09 


.21 


2 


7 


22 


43-9 


140.8 


2-77 


.10 


.10 









28 


44-3 
47-6 


253.9 


5.59 


.12 


.145 


.205 


6 


9 


28 


320.2 


til 


.12 


.12 






10 


20 


51.0 


m 


•13 


.14 


.245 


3 


ii 


I 


S^.i 


3-5i 


.11 


.11 






12 


S4-6 


i77-i 


3.96 


.18 


.18 


.20 


1 


13 


4 


59.3 


109.2 


2.35 


.184 


.184 






M 


















Total 


147 




1609.2 


33.86 








12 



This land was cut over in 1891, at which time 11 Spruce with an 
were removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Level. Soil: moist, rich. 



i 3 6 



NO. 9 

AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH WAS 

IN 189I 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING 


Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Cherry 


Diam. 

Inches 


28 
26 
25 

"8 


33 
21 

i5 

21 

20 

12 

11 

5 

4 

1 

1 

2 


I 

I 
I 
2 
I 

I 


5 
2 


1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 


1 


I 
2 

3 
4 

1 
I 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


98 


146 


9 


7 


6 


1 


Total 



estimated yield of 2.6 standards, ard 6 Pine yielding 11.3 standards 
Spruce of good quality. 



PLOT 
0.8 ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE SLOPE 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 
















Mean 








Aver 






Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. ot 


Diam. 


Spruce 


age 

height 

Feet 






annual 


annual 


growth 


trees 




cut in 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


1896 


teet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


ot38 


ing in- 












87-88. 


89-96. 


trees 


creased 












Inches 


Inches 


89-96. 
Inches 


growth 


i 

2 

3 
4 

I 


















3 


34-6 


9-57 

r 2 
162.0 


0.96 


.10 


.10 


.10 


1 


13 


42.2 


.11 


.115 


.09 


1 


I 


a 


46.2 


3.50 


.085 


.12 


.18 


6 


48.5 


252.5 
180.0 


5.59 


.09 


.145 


.185 


16 


9 


15 


52.5 


3-99 


.11 


.12 


.18 


9 


10 


7 


52.0 


101.3 
32.0 


2.06 


.12 


.185 


•*7 


5 


ii 


2 


54.6 


0.63 


.23 


• 2 3 






12 


















*3 




































16 

3 


















20 


















Total 


93 




796.17 


16.88 








38 



This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 34 Spruce, with an 
slope. Soil: rather thin. Slope: S. W. about io°-i5°. Spruce of 



x 3 8 



NO. IO 

AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN 

IN 1888. 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING 


Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Pine 


Diam . 
Inches 


5 
4 

IO 

17 

IO 

I 


1 
4 
3 

1 


1 
1 
6 

9 

I 

2 
2 
2 

1 


1 

2 
2 

I 
I 
I 

1 


6 

1 

4 

1 


1 


2 

3 

4 

I 

I 

9 

IO 

11 
12 
*3 

14 

2 

3 

20 


47 


9 


34 


9 


12 


12 


Total 



estimated yield of 38.4 standards, were removed. Situation: Spruce 
excellent quality. 



139 



PLOT 
ONE ACRE MEASURED ON CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. 
















Mean 














Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Aver- 






annual 


annual 


growth 


trees 




cut. in 


age 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


1896 


height 


feet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diara. 


Of 14 


ing in- 






Feet 






87-88 
Inches 


89-96 
Inches 


trees 

89-96 

Inches 


creased 
growth 


I 

2 


















3 
4 

I 


















1 


35-0 


34 


0.06 


.14 


.14 






12 


39-2 


44.9 


0.77 


.09 


.11 


.22 


2 


i 


36 


42.9 


213.0 


372 


.10 


.115 


.195 


5 


32 


47.6 


287.3 


5.7§ 


.10 


.115 


.23 


3 


9 


[§ 


47-9 


y vA 


3.66 


.10 


.10 






10 


55-0 


266.6 


5.92 


.11 


.14 


.255 


3 


ii 


II 


53.6 


201.5 


4.27 
0.28 


.115 


.125 


.25 


1 


12 


I 


62.2 


21.0 


.20 


.20 






13 


3 


83.0 


1. 61 


.18 


.18 






14 


















3 


















\l 


















Total 


129 




1298.5 


26.07 








14 



This land was cut over in 1888. at which time 27 Spruce with an 
were removed. Situation : partly Spruce slope and partly Spruce flat. 



NO. II 

LAND AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING. 


Spruce 


Dead 
Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Pine 


Ash 


Diam. 
Inches 




1 














1 


10 


4 


9 


I 










2 


25 


4 


12 






1 






3 


27 


5 


8 


1 




2 






4 


27 


3 


4 


6 


1 


3 






2 


12 


2 


5 


13 


2 


8 




I 


4 


3 


1 


11 


2 


10 






7 






5 


20 


3 


3 


1 







1 




1 


7 


2 


4 






9 






2 


13 


6 


2 






10 


1 






5 
4 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 


4 
2 
1 

1 


1 






11 
12 
13 
14 

S 

2 


107 


22 


47 


89 


24 


34 


1 


I 


Total 



estimated yield of 9.8 standards, and 5 Pine with 7.9 standards, 
Spruce of good quality. 



PLOT 
0.9 ACRE MEASURED ON HARDWOOD LAND 

CUT OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. 
















Mean 




• 










Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 
cut in 


Aver- 






annual 


annual 


growth 


trees 




age 


Cubic 


Stand 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


1896 


height 


leet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


of 4 


ing in- 






Feet 






87-88 
Inches 


89-96 
Inches 


trees 

89-96 

Inches 


creased 
growth 


1 
2 


















3 


















4 


















I 


9 


42.8 


41.2 


0.61 


.08 


.08 






7 


26 


44-3 


1 61 .6 


2.94 


.07 


.08 


.205 


2 


8 


12 


49-0 


107.5 


2.23 


.11 


.12 


.21 


1 


9 


12 


52.8 


20.9 


3.i5 


•13 


.145 


.21 


1 


10 
11 


11 

1 


m 


3.52 
0.48 


.11 

.10 


!io 






12 


















*3 


1 


61.9 


28.7 


0.61 


.18 


.18 






M 


















\l 


















% 


















Total 


72 




671.7 


13-54 








4 



This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 20 Spruce with an 
with 1. 14 standards, 2 Cherry with 1.09 standards, were removed, 
good quality. 



M2 



^ 



s 



NO. 12. 

AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN 

IN 1888. 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING. 


Spruce 


Dead 
Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Hem- 
lock 


Cherry 


Diam. 

Inches 


17 
18 

H 
'9 

7 
2 


1 

5 

1 

1 
1 


3 

5 
3 

2 

1 


1 
4 

i 

6 
11 

7 
3 
5 

5 
5 

1 

4 

1 

3 


1 
2 

1 

4 
2 

3 
5 
3 




1 
1 

1 


1 


1 
2 
3 
4 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
H 

3 


77 


9 


*5 


69 


21 


7 


3 


« 


Total 



estimated yield of 12 standards, 2 Pine with 3.7 standards, 2 Balsam 
Situation : hardwood land. One corner : Spruce flat. Spruce of 



143 



PLOT 
1.5 ACRES MEASURED ON HARDWOOD LAND AT 

OVER 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 
















Mean 














Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 


Aver. 






annual 


annual 


growth 


Trees 




cut in 


height 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


show- 


laches 


1896 




leet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


of 15 


ing in- 






Feet 






87-88 
Inches 


89-96 
Inches 


Trees 
89-96 
Inches 


creased 
growth 


1 
2 


















3 


















4 

I 

I 


















4 


43-4 
444 


22.1 

I0I.0 


\% 


.056 
.065 


.056 

.085 


.20 


2 


25 


49- 1 


220.0 


4.27 


.07 


.09 


•30 


10 


9 


M 


50.0 


246.6 


4.9i 


.115 


.125 


.19 


2 


10 


J 4 


57.0 


225.0 


4.87 


si 


• l3 o 


.30 


I 


11 


5 


59-1 


90.5 


2.09 


.128 






12 


2 


54.3 


n 


.89 


•17 


.17 






13 


3 


51.1 


1.70 


.14 


.14 






M 


















\l 


















\l 


















19 


















Total 


84 




1014.5 


20.87 








J 5 



Land cut over in 1888. 24 Spruce with an estimated yield of 11. 4 
removed. Situation: hardwood land. Soil: rather rocky and thin. 



NO. 13 

SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN CUT 

IN 1888 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTINO 


Spruce 


Dead 
Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Hem- 
lock 


Oherry 


Diam. 
Inches 


7 
M 

14 

10 
1 
1 

1 


5 
4 

X 

1 
4 

1 


I 

2 
1 
2 

1 
1 
2 
3 


1 

2 
2 
3 

5 
11 

4 
7 
10 
6 

1 
2 

4 

1 


1 

2 
2 

5 
5 
3 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 


1 

1 
1 


1 
1 
1 

1 


1 
1 
1 

1 


X 
2 

3 
4 

I 
I 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 

S 

)l 

19 


48 


16 


23 


81 


23 


3 


4 


4 


Total 



standards, 1 Pine with 1.4 standards, and 5 Cedar with 1.1 standards, 
Character of Spruce : good. 



M5 



PLOT 
1.5 ACRES MEASURED ON A SPRUCE 



MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 
















Mean 








Aver- 
age 

height 
Feet 






Mean 


Mean 


annual 


No. of 


Diam. 


Spruce 






annual 


annual 


growth 


trees 




cut in 


Cubic 


Stand- 


growth 


growth 


in diam. 


show- 


Inches 


1896 


feet 


ards 


in diam. 


in diam. 


of4 


ing in- 










87-88. 


89-96. 


trees 


creased 












Inches 


Inches 


89-96. 
Inches 


growth 


X 
2 


















3 


















4 

i 


















6 


44-2 


30.2 
169.8 


0.49 


.094 








I 


3 


4J.8 


2.89 


.12 


.13 


.18 


1 


46.8 


366.5 
357-6 


7-49 


.12 


.12 






9 


32 


497 


7.89 


.116 


.116 






10 


23 


537 


8.45 


.125 


.125 






11 


2 ? 


59-9 


5547 
362.0 
209.9 


12.53 


.14 


.i55 


.265 


3 


12 
i3 


16 
7 


58.2 


8.00 
4.60 


± 


as 






3 


2 


60.5 


657 


1.45 


.154 


.154 






1 


65.0 


45-0 


1.07 


.14 


.14 






II 


















19 


















20 


















Total 


179 




2518.6 


54-86 








4 



This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 13 Spruce trees, with 
ards ; one Balsam with .6 standards, and 2 large Hemlocks cut for 
Old stumps chiefly bunched at one end of area. 



146 



NO. 14. 

FLAT AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK. 



MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING 


Spruce 


Balsam 


Birch 


Maple 


Cedar 


Cherry 


Diam. 
Inches 


16 

28 

20 

33 

12 

7 

2 


*3 

39 

27 

20 

26 

25 

13 

11 

3 

2 

2 


1 
2 

2 

4 
2 

1 

3 
2 

2 
2 

1 
1 
1 

1 


1 

4 
2 
1 
10 
1 

2 
4 

1 


1 

3 

1 

2 
2 


1 
1 


1 
2 
3 
4 

2 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
M 

S 

S 

19 
20 


118 


191 


36 


26 


9 


2 


Total 



an estimated yield of 1 1. 1 5 standards; 2 Tamaracks with 1.8 stand- 
bark, were removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Soil: fairly rich and moist. 



INDEX 



Abies balsamea, see Balsam. 
Acer barbatum, see Maple, Hard. 
Acer rubrum, see Maple, Soft. 
Adirondack and St. Lawrence 

Railroad, 87, 98, 101. 
Administration, Cost of, 117-120. 
Amount of merchantable timber in 

Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 115. 
Annual yield, see Yield, Annual. 
Area of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 59, 98. 
Ash, Black. 

Habit of, 29. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne-Park, 5, 7, 29. 

Proportion of, in different situ- 
ations, 9, n, 13, 15. 

Shade tolerance of, 6. 

Yield of, 90, 92. 
Ash, White, 5, 6, 29. 
Aspen, 5. 

Assembly of N. Y. State, Special 
committee of. Final report, 
46. 
Balsam. 

Habit of, 27. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. 

Proportion of, in different situa- 
tions, 9, 11, 13, 15. 

Rate of growth, 27, 96. 

Shade tolerance of, 6, 27. 
Basswood, Yield of, 90. 
Beech. 

Habit of, 25. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. 

Proportion of, in different situa- 
tions, 9, 11, 13, 15. 

Rate of growth, 25, 26, 96. 

Shade tolerance of, 6, 20, 25. 
Bender, U.F., 2. 
Betula lutea, see Birch. 



Birch. 

Habit of, 24-25. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. 

Market demand for, 87. 
" value of, 116. 

Per cent, of unsound trees, 
among, 114. 

Proportion of, in different situa- 
tions, 9, 11, 13, 15. 

Rate of growth, 25, 95-96. 

Shade tolerance of, 6, 24. 

Yield of, 88, 90, 92, 115. 
Bird Cherry, 5-6. 
Black ash, see Ash, Black. 
Black spruce, see Spruce, Black. 
Board feet. 

Number of, in a standard, 53. 
Burns, Edward M. VII. 
Cedar. 

Habit of, 29. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 7. 

on swamp lands, 9. 

Yield of, 92. 
Chain method of measuring land, 

59-60. 
Cherry. 

Habit of, 30. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne-Park, 5, 7, 30. 

Market demand for, 87. 

Proportion of, in different situa- 
tions, 9, 11, 13, 15. 

Shade tolerance of, 6, 30. 

Yield of, 90, 92. 
Cherry, Bird, 5, 6. 
Climate of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, roo. 
Composition of forest. 

Determining factors in, 23. 

Effect of cutting on, 31, 36, 39. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5-7. 



150 



INDEX 



Composition of forest— cont'd, 
on hardwood lands, 12-13. 
" spruce flats, 10-11. 
11 " slopes, 14-15. 
" swamp lands, 8-9. 
Crops, see Future crops. 
Crown. 
Rate of growth, 48. 
Shape of, 16, 21, 35. 
Cull, Allowance for, 87-88, 91, 114. 
Cuts, Intervals between, in relation 
to yield, 75-76, 79-86, 95,107-108. 
Cutting. 
Effect of, on composition of 

forest, 31, 36, 39. 
Increased growth after, (with 

tables), 39—45- 
Limit of diameter in, 75-76, 79- 

86, 96-97, 103, 107-108, 112. 
Principles which should govern, 
110-113. 
Dead trees, Number of, per acre, 

(with table), 77-78. 
Diameter, see Dimensions. 
Diameter limit in cutting, see Limit 

of diameter in cutting. 
Dimensions, 
of ash, 29. 
of balsam, 27. 
of beech, 25. 
of birch, 24. 
of cedar, 29. 
of cherry, 30. 
of hemlock, 27. 
of maple, hard, 26. 
of maple, soft, 28. 
of pine, 28. 
of spruce, 16. 

" Average ; computation 
and tables, 60-74. 



Dimensions— cont'd. 

of spruce, influenced by light, 20. 
Dimmick's rule, 51-54. 
Distribution of species, Determin- 
ing factors in, 22-23. 
Distribution of spruce, Determin- 
ing factors in, 17-18. 
Elm, Yield of, 90. 
Examples of use of yield tables, 

82-86. 
Expenses of forest administration, 

1 1 7-120. 
Fagus americana, see Beech. 
Farnham, Henry, 2. 
Felling, Need of care in, 32, 113. 
Fires, 33, 101, 113. 
Forest management. 
Basis for, 34-41. 
Reasons for, 75-76, 102-104. 
Working plan of, 105-113. 
Forest, Virgin, see Virgin forest. 
Forestry in relation to lumbering, 

V-VI. 
Forestry division, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, VII. 
Form, see Habit. 
Fraxinus niger, see Ash, Black. 
Future crops. 
Lumbering in relation to, 31-32, 

36-37. 
Necessity of providing for, 2, 105. 
Prediction of, 59, 75, 96. 
Young growth in relation to, 
35-37. 
Graves, Henry S., 2, 3, 89. 
Griffith, E. M., 2, 3. 
Growth, Rate of, see Rate of 
growth, aha Increase of growth. 
Habit, 
of ash, 29. 



INDEX 



151 



Habit — cont'd. 

of balsam, 27. 

of beech, 25. 

of birch, 24-25. 

of cedar, 29. 

of cherry, 30. 

of hemlock, 26-27. 

of maple, hard, 26. 

of maple, soft, 28. 

of pine, 28-29. 

of spruce, 16. 

" influenced by shade, 
2i,35- 
Hard maple, see Maple, Hard. 
Hardwood lands. 

Condition of forest on, 12-13. 

Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 
Park, 6, 87. 

Spruce on, 12, 36. 

Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 
142-145. 

Yield of different species on, 92. 
Hardwoods. 

in competition with spruce, 17- 
18, 36-37. 

in relation to lumbering of 
spruce, 103-104, no. 

Market demand for, 87. 

Number of small trees, per acre, 
93-94. 

Proportion of unsound trees 
among, 87-88, /14. 

Rate of growth of, 95-96. 

Yield of, 88-91, 96-97. 
Hartig, Prof., 38. 
Height, see Dimensions. 
Hemlock. 

Habit of, 26-27. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. 

Market value of, 116. 



Hemlock— cont'd. 
Per cent, of unsound trees among, 

91, ii4- 
Proportion of, in different situ- 
ations, 9, n, 13, 15. 
Rate of growth of, 27, 96. 
Shade tolerance of, 6, 27. 
Yield of, 89, 90, 92, 115. 
Humus, 37-38. 
Income, see Returns. 
Increase of growth after lumbering, 

(with tables), 39-45. 
Intolerance of shade, see Shade 

tolerance. 
Jacobs, James L., 88, 89. 
Lakes in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 98, 

108-109. 
Largetooth aspen, 5. 
Leupp, G. M., 2. 

Light, Influence of, see Shade tol- 
erance. 
Limit of diameter in cutting in re- 
lation to yield, 75-76 , 79~86, 
96-97, 103, 107-108, H2. 
Lumber. 
Fitness of young growth for, 

21, 35. 
Market value of different kinds 

of, 116. 
Quality of, affected by suppres- 
sion of growth, 21. 
Q uality of, affected by thinning, 

Transportation of, in Ne-Ha-Sa- 
Ne Park, 101. 
Lumbering. 

Better methods of, 34. 

Effect of bad methods of, 31-33. 

in relation to forest manage- 
ment, V-VI, 75-76, 102-104. 



152 



INDEX 



Lumbering— cont'd, 
in relation to future crops of 

spruce, 3 J -32, 3°-37. 
Increased growth after, (with 

tables), 39-45. 
Working plan of, 105-113. 
McClintock, W., 2. 
Management of forests, see Forest 

management. 
Maple, Hard. 
Habit of, 26. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. 
Market demand for, 87. 

" value of, 116. 
Per cent, of unsound trees 

among, 114. 
Proportion of, in different situa- 
tions, 9, 11, 13, 15. 
Rate of growth of, 26, 95-96. 
Shade tolerance of, 6, 20, 26. 
Yield of, 89, 90, 92, 115. 
Maple, Soft. 
Habit of, 28. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. 
Proportion of, in different situa- 
tions, 9, 11, 13, 15. 
Rate of growth of, 28, 96. 
Shade tolerance of, 6. 
Market value of different woods, 116. 
Marsh lands, see Swamp lands. 
Measurement of standing timber, 

59-60. 
Measurement of land, 59-60. 
Merchantable timber in Ne-Ha-Sa- 
Ne Park, 114, 115. 
Mixed forest. 
Compared with pure forest, no. 
Determining factors in composi- 
tion of, 22-23. 
Spruce in, 23. 



Mosle, F., 2. 

Moynehan, Patrick, VII, 46. 
Natural forest, see Virgin forest. 
Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. 
Amount of merchantable timber 

in, 114— 115. 
Area of, 59, 98. 
Composition of forest in, (with 

table), 5-7. 
Condition of, 4, 102. 
Lakes in, 98, 108-109. 
Topography and climate, 98-100. 
Transportation facilities in, 101. 
Watersheds in, 108-109. 
New York State Assembly, Spe- 
cial committee of. Final re- 
port, 46. 
Number of dead trees per acre, 

(with table), 77-7S. 
Number of merchantable trees 

per acre, 90-92. 
Number of small trees, other than 

spruce, per acre, 93-94. 
Number of trees, per acre, 35, 62- 

64, 66-72. 
Olmsted, F. E., 2. 
Picea mariana, see Spruce, Black. 
Pinchot and Graves. " White 

pine," 89. 
Pine, White. 
Habit of, 28-29. 

in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7, 28. 
Market value of, 116. 
Proportion of, in different situa- 
tions, 9, n, 13, 15. 
Shade tolerance of, 6, 29. 
Yield of, 89,90, 92, 115. 
Pinus strobus, see Pine, White. 
Poplars, 5, 6. 
Pressler's Zuwachsborer, 95. 



INDEX 



153 



Price, 
of different woods, 116. 
of virgin forest land, 117. 
Profits, see Returns. 
Prunus serotina, see Cherry, Black. 
Pure forests, no. 
Quality of lumber, 
affected by suppression of 

growth, 21. 
affected by thinning, 37, 
Railroad in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 

87, 98, 101. 
Rate of growth, 
as affected by thinning, 37-38, 48. 
in diameter in cut-over forest, 

(with tables), 43-45, 121-147. 
in diameter in original forest, 

(with tables), 46-47. 
in different parts of tree, (with 

table), 48-49. 
Increase of, from lumbering, 

(with table), 39-45. 
Method of ascertaining, 39-41, 

44. 
of balsam, 27. 
of beech, 25-26, 96. 
of birch, 25, 95-96. 
of cherry, 30. 
of hemlock, 27, 96. 
of maple, hard, 26, 95-96. 

" soft, 28, 96. 
of spruce, 39-49. 
Recuperative power of spruce, 20- 

21, 35- 
Reproduction, 
in relation to lumbering, 36, 103- 

104. 
of balsam, 27. 
of beech, 25. 
of birch, 24-25. 



Reproduction— cont'd. 

of cherry, 30. 

of hemlock, 27. 

of maple, hard, 28. 

of maple, soft, 28. 

of pine, 29. 

of spruce, 18-19, 31-32, 36. 
Returns. 

a requisite of forest management, 
105. , 

from annual cutting, 116-118. 
" cutting whole area in one 
year, 118-119. 

from cutting whole area in five 
years, 119-120. 
Road-building, Choice of wood in, 

33, 112-113. 
Roads in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 101. 
Santa Clara, N. Y., Valuation 
surveys at, 3, 39-45* 5°> "21-147. 
Santa Clara lumber company, 2, 57. 
Scribner's rule, 53-55. 
Seed bed, 18-19. 
Seedlings. 

of birch, 24. 

of spruce, 18-19. 
Selection forest, 5, 22-23. 
Shade tolerance. 

a factor in the distribution of 
species, 22-23. 

of species in selection forest, 5-6, 

of ash, 6. 

of balsam, 6, 27. 

of beech, 6, 20, 25. 

of birch, 6, 24. 

of cherry, 6, 30. 

of hemlock, 6, 27. 

of maple, hard, 6, 20, 26. 
soft, 6. 

of pine, 6, 29. 



154 



INDEX 



Shade tolerance— cont'd, 
of poplar, 5, 6. 
of spruce, 6, 19-21. 
of tamarack, 5, 6. 
Sherrard, T. H., 2. 
Situation. 
Composition of forest according 

to, 6-15. 
in relation to cutting, 111-112. 

" distribution of species, 
22-23. 
in relation to yield, (with table), 

92. 
Influence of, on ash, 29. 

" balsam, 27. 
" beech, 25. 
" birch, 24-25. 
" cedar, 29. 
'* cherry, 30. 
u hemlock, 26-27. 
" maple, hard, 26. 
soft, 28. 
11 " pine, 28. 

" spruce, 16-18, 23. 
Valuation surveys grouped by, 
60-65. 
Skidding, Injury to trees in, 32, 

"3- 
Soft maple, see Maple, Soft. 
Soil, 
favorable to ash, 29. 

balsam, 27. 
beech, 25. 
birch, 24-25. 
cedar, 29. 
cherry, 30. 
hemlock, 26. 
maple, hard, 26. 
4k soft, 28. 
pine, 26. 



Soil— cont'd, 
in relation to cutting, 111-112. 
Influence of, on distribution of 

species, 23. 
Influence of, on spruce, 16-19. 
of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 99-100. 
Special committee of N. Y. State 

Assembly. Final report, 46. 
Species of trees in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 
Park. 
Distribution of, 22-23. 
Enumeration of, 5. 
on hardwood lands, 12-13. 
on spruce flats, 10-n. 
on spruce slopes, 14-15. 
on swamp lands, 8-9. 
Spruce, Black, 8. 
Spruce flats. 
Condition of forest on, (with 

table), 10-11. 
Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 

Park, 6 
Spruce on, 10, 36. 
Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 

124-137, 146-147. 
Yield of different species on, 92. 

Spruce slopes. 
Condition of forest on, (with 

table), 14-15. 
Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 

Park, 6. 
Spruce on, 14, 36. 
Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 

138-139. 
Yield of different species on, 92. 

Standard. 

Number of board feet in, 53. 
Standing timber. 

Measurement of, 59~6o. 



INDEX 



155 



Standard timber — cont'd. 
Merchantable, Amount of, in Ne- 

Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 115. 
Volume tables of, 50-58. 
Stem analysis, 40, 46. 
Strip method of measuring land, 

59-60. 
Swamp lands. 
Condition of forest on, (with 

table), 8-9. 
Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 

Park, 6. 
Spruce on, 8, 36. 
Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 

122-123. 
Yield of different species on, 92. 
Tables. 

1. Composition of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 
forest, 7. 

2. Composition of forest on 
swamp lands, 9. 

3. Composition of forest on 
spruce flats, n. 

4. Composition of forest on 
hardwood lands, 13. 

5. Composition of forest on 
spruce slopes, 15. 

6. Per cent, of trees whose 
growth was increased by lum- 
bering, 42. 

7. Average rate of growth in 
cut-over forest. 45. 

8. Average rate of growth in 
original forest, 47. 

9. Mean annual diameter growth, 
49- 

10. Volume table in standards, 
5 2 - 

io}4. Board fest in a standard, 53. 
12. Volume table in board feet, 55. 



Tables— cont'd. 

13. Volume table in merchant- 
able cubic feet, 56. 

14. Volume table in merchant- 
able cords, 58. 

15-16. Average number of trees, 
dimensions, and yield per acre, 
classified by situation, 62-63. 

17. Average dimensions classi- 
fied according to situation, 
65. 

18. Average number of trees per 
acre, classified according to 
yield, 66. 

19-22. Average dimensions, num- 
ber of trees and yield per acre, 
classified according to yield, 
69-72. 

23. Average dimensions classified 
according to yield, 74. 

24. Average number of dead 
spruce trees per acre, 78. 

25-27. Yield tables, 79-81. 

28. Yield of birch, 88. 

29. Yield of hemlock, 89. 

30. Yield of basswood and elm 
(used for cherry and ash), 90. 

31. Average yield per acre for 
merchantable species, 92. 

32. Average number of trees of 
small diameter, other than 
spruce, per acre, 94. 

33. Rate of growth in diameter 
of associated species, 96. 

34. Merchantable timber in Ne- 
Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 115. 

Tamarack, 5, 6, 23. 

Temperature of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne 

Park, 100. 
Thinning, Effect of, 37-38, 48. 



i 5 6 



INDEX 



Thuya occidentalis, see Cedar. 
Timber, Standing, see Standing 

timber. 
Tolerance of shade, see Shade tol- 
erance. 
Topography of Ne-Ha-Sa Ne Park, 

98-99. 
Transportation facilities in Ne-Ha- 

Sa-Ne Park, 101. 
Tree analysis, 40, 46. 
Trees. 
Dead, Number of, per acre, (with 

table), 77-78. 
Number of, per acre, 35, 62-64, 66- 

72. 
of small diameter, other than 
spruce, Number of, per acre, 
93-94. 
Tsuga canadensis, see Hemlock. 
United States Department of Agri- 
culture—Division of Forestry, 
VII. 
Unsound trees, Proportion of, 87- 

88, 91, 114. 
Valuation surveys, 
grouped by situation, (with tab- 
les), 60-65. 
grouped by yield, (with tables), 

60-61, 64, 66-74. 
Method of making, 59-61, 64, 68, 73. 
on cut-over land at Santa Clara, 
121-147. 
Value of different woods, 116. 
Virgin forest. 
Economic value of, 4, 102. 
Price of, per acre, 117. 
Rate of growth of trees in, 46-47. 
Volume tables, 
in standards, 51-52. 
in board feet, 53-55. 



Volume tables— cont'd. 

in merchantable cubic feet, 56. 

11 " cords, 57-58. 

Wagstaff, Thomas H.46. 
Walcott, W. S.2. 
Watersheds in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 

108-109. 
Water supply as affected by lum- 
bering, 33. 
Webb, W. Seward. VI, VII, 1, 46. 
White ash, see Ash, White. 
White pine, see Pine, White. 
Whitney, William C. VII. 
Windfalls, Prevention of, 104,111- 

112. 
Winged seeds, 18. 
Woodruff, S. 2. 
Working plan, 102-120. 
Yellow birch, see Birch. 
Yield, Annual, Lumbering with 

reference to, 106-109. 
Yield per acre. 

of ash, 90, 92. 

of basswood, 00. 

of birch, 88, 90, 92, 115. 

of cedar, 92. 

of cherry, 90, 92. 

of elm, 90. 

ol hemlock, 89, 90, 92, 115. 

of maple, hard, 89, 00, 92, 115. 

of pine, 89, 90, 92, 115. 

of spruce, 60-63, 9 2 i Ix 5- 

11 Valuation surveys class- 
ified by, 61, 64, 66-74. 
Yield tables of spruce, 79-81. 

Object of, 75-76. 

Computation of, 77. 

Examples of use of, 82-86. 
Young giowth in the forest. 

as affected by lumbering, 39. 



INDEX 



157 



Young growth, etc.— cont'd. 
Fitness of, to produce lumber, si, 

35. 
in relation to future crops of 

spruce, 35-37. 
Injuries to, from felling and 

skidding, 32, 113. 



Young growth, etc.— cont'd. 
Number of trees per acre, 35. 
" " " other than spruce 
per acre, 93-94. 
Occurrence of, 19, 34-35. 
under heavy cover, 35. 
Zuwachsborer, Pressler's, 95. 



JAN 13 Mfc 



^,y y ° FC0N °«ess 



0002 835924 



SwS9 



